TELECOM & NETWORKS

For BCS 3rd Semester

WRITTEN BY: TARIQ SHAH NADAN

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Data Communication
The transmission of data from one device or computer to another device or computer is called
data transmission.

Components of Data Communication

There are five components of data communication.

 Message
 Sender
 Receiver
 Transmission medium
 Protocol

Message
The message is the information or data that is to be transmitted. It may consist of text,
numbers, pictures, sounds, videos or any combination of these.

Sender
A device that sends or transmits data is called sender. It is also called transmitter or source.
The sender can be a computer, telephone, video camera etc.

Receiver
A device that receives data is called receiver. It is also called sink. The receiving device can
be computer, telephone, fax machine etc.

Transmission Medium
The path through which data is transmitted from sender to receiver. It is also called
communication channel.

Protocol
A set of rules that governs data communication. It represents an agreement between
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but they do not
communicate with each other.

Modes of Data Transmission

The way in which data is transmitted from one place to another is called data transmission
mode. There are three types of data transmission mode.

 Simplex mode
 Half duplex mode
 Full duplex mode

Simplex Mode
In simplex mode, data can flow only in one direction. In this mode, a sender can only send
data and cannot receive it. Similarly, a receiver can only receive data but cannot send it.

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Example
Loudspeaker, radio and television broadcasting etc.

Half Duplex Mode

In half duplex mode, data can flow in both directions but only in one direction at a time. In this
mode, data is sent and received alternatively. The speed of half duplex mode is slow.

Example
A walkie – talkie operates in half duplex mode. It can only send or receive a transmission at a
given time. It cannot do both at the same time.

Full Duplex Mode

In full duplex mode, data can flow in both directions at the same time. It is fastest way of data
transmission. Time is not wasted in changing the direction of data flow.

Example
Telephone networks operate in full duplex mode. Both persons can talk at the same time.

Types of Data Transmission

There are two types of data transmission.

 Asynchronous transmission
 Synchronous transmission

Asynchronous Transmission
In this transmission, a single character is transmitted at a time. Also characters are transmitted
at irregular interval of time. Here, each character is enclosed by start bit and stop bit
respectively. The start bit informs the receiver that a character is coming whereas the stop bit
shows the end of a character. A parity bit is also added to a character to check the error during
transmission. It is cheap, slow and suitable for shorter distance transmission.

Synchronous Transmission
In this transmission, a characters are grouped into blocks and a complete block of characters
is transmitted at a time. It uses a clock to control timing of bits to be sent. In this transmission,
a large amount of data can be sent at a single time. It is fast and suitable for longer distance
transmission.

OSI Reference Model

OSI stands for Open System Interconnection. It was developed by the International Standard
Organization (ISO) in 1983. OSI is a non-physical model that describes the working
procedures of data communication. This model is also very useful in understanding how
equipments from one manufacturer could be connected with totally different equipments from
some other manufacturer. OSI reference model consists of seven layers:

 Application layer
 Presentation Layer
 Session layer
 Transport layer

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 Network layer
 Data link layer
 Physical layer
The first three upper three layers of OSI model are called high level layers as they are related
to the software. The lower four layers are called low level layers because they are concerned
with networking hardware.

Application Layer
The application layer is the top most layer of OSI model. It provides services directly to user
applications. It enables the user to access the network. It provides user interfaces and support
for services such as email, remote file access and transfer, shared database management,
and other types of distributed information services.

Presentation Layer
The presentation layer performs data reformatting, data compression and encryption. It is
concerned with how data is converted and formatted for data transfer. Example of format
conversion include ASCII text for document and .gif and .jpg for images.

Session Layer
The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates user connections. A session is an
exchange of messages between computers. It synchronizes user tasks.

Transport Layer
The transport layer controls the flow of data. It ensures that messages are delivered error free.
It divides large messages into small packets for efficient transmission. These packets are
reassembled, checked for errors and acknowledged at receiving side. If there are errors in
transmission, the data is retransmitted.

Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for establishing, maintaining, and terminating network
connections. It manages the delivery of data from source to destination. It determines the
logical path between sender and receiver.

Data Link Layer

It is responsible for node-to-node delivery of data. It receives the data from network layer and
creates FRAMES, add physical address to these frames and pass them to physical layer.
Framing, flow control, error control and access control are the functions of data link layer.

Physical Layer
Physical layer is bottom layer of the OSI model. It transmits stream of bits and defines how
data is transmitted over the network and what control signals are used. Its main function is to
control how a stream of bits is sent and received over the medium.

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Computer Network
When two or more than two computers are connected through some medium to share
information and resources is called computer network. An example of computer network is
internet.

Purpose
The main purpose of computer network is to share data or information, expensive hardware
and software among various users.

Network Model
The technique used to develop a computer network is called network model.

Types
The following are the types of network model.

 Peer-to-peer network
 Client-server network

Peer-to-Peer Network
In this model there is no central computer of server. All computers are peers. So, there is no
centralized control over the entire network. Each peer computer uses network resources as
well as provides its own resources to the network. Operating system such as windows xp,
Macintosh OSX and Linux are used for peer-to-peer network.

Client-Server Network
Client-server is a network in which one computer work as server and other computers work
as clients. Server provides services for the clients. It controls access to hardware and software
on the network. It provides centralized storage area for programs, data and information. Client
computers request resources from the server. Operating system such as windows 2008, UNIX
and LINUX are used for client-server network.

Types of Network
There are three main types of computer networks.

 LAN (Local Area Network)

 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
 WAN (Wide Area Network)

LAN (Local Area Network)

LAN stands for Local Area Network. It is the most common type of network. It covers a small
area. It usually connects the computers and other devices within one office or a building or
group of buildings. LAN is often used to share resources such as printers, hard disks and
programs.

Example
In a computer lab, there are 40 computers connected through LAN. The students can share
software, files and data in the lab.

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MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Network. This type of network covers an area of a city.
MAN is larger than LAN but smaller than WAN. It usually used to connect two or more LANs
in a city or town.

Example
The network connecting different campuses of a college in a city, cable TV network in a city.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

WAN stands for Wide Area Network. This type of network covers a large area. It connects
computers and other devices in different cities and countries. WAN usually consists of several
LANs.

Example
Internet is an example of WAN.

Network Topology
The physical arrangement of connected devices in a network is called network topology.

Types
Network topologies can be categorized into the following types.

 Bus topology
 Star topology
 Ring topology
 Mesh topology
 Hybrid topology

Bus Topology
In bus topology, all the nodes are connected to a single cable called bus. This central cable is
the backbone of the network. Every computer communicates with the other device through
this bus. A signal from the source is broadcasted and it travels to all workstations connected
to bus cable. At each end of the cable terminator is used to absorb signals.

Advantages
 It is very easy and simple to use.
 Less expensive than other topology.
 If one node fails, it does not affect the whole network.

Disadvantages
 Entire network goes down if main cable fails.
 Difficult to detect the problem.
 Not suitable for network with heavy load.

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Star Topology
In star topology, all the computers are connected to the central devices like hub, switch. In
star topology, the sending computer sends the data to hub. The hub sends data to the
receiving computer. Star topology is most commonly used in LAN.

Advantages
 Easy to install and maintain the network.
 Adding or removing computers can be done without disturbing the network.
 Easy to detect faults.
 Failure of computer or link does not affect the whole network.

Disadvantages
 Entire network goes down if main hub fail.
 It is more expensive because it requires large number of cable.

Ring Topology
In ring topology, each computer is connected to the next computer while the last one is
connected to the first one and make a ring. In ring topology, each computer receives message
from the previous computer and transmit it to the next computer until it reach to the destination
computer. Message flow in one direction.

Advantages
 Every computer has equal access to the network.
 Perform better than star network under heavy load.
 Less expensive than star topology.

Disadvantages
 Failure of one node brings the whole network down.
 Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the network.

Mesh Topology
Mesh means net. In this topology, every computer is connected to every other computer. In
mesh topology, messages sent can take any of several possible paths from source to
destination.

Advantages
 It can work even under heavy load.
 Troubleshooting is easy as compared to other.
 Addition of computers does not affect the network.

Disadvantages
 It is expensive due to large number of links.
 It is difficult to maintain due to large number of computers.

Hybrid Topology
The combination of two or more than two topologies is called hybrid topology.

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Transmission Media
The path through which data is transmitted from sender to receiver. It is also called
communication channel.

Types of Transmission Media

There are two main types of transmission media.

 Guided media
 Unguided media

Guided Media
Guided media is also known as bounded media, cable physical media. Guided media are
those media which uses cables to transmit data among devices. It is divided into three types.

 Twisted pair cable

 Coaxial cable
 Fiber optic cable

Twisted Pair Cable

It is the most common medium of communication. Twisted pair cable consists of a pair of
copper wires. The pair of wires is covered by a plastic insulation and it is twisted together.
Twisting of wires protect them from interference by external electromagnetic waves. Twisted
pair cable is divided into two types.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Shielded twisted pair contains a layer of foil shielding. The shielding reduces the
electromagnetic interference. It is expensive than UTP.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Unshielded twisted pair does not contain a layer of foil shielding. It is cheap than STP.

Advantages
 It is cheaper than coaxial and fiber optic cable.
 It is easy to install.

Disadvantages
 It has slow transmission rate.
 It suffers from EMI (electro-magnetic interference).

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of copper wire covered by an insulating material. The insulated copper
wire is covered by copper mesh. The mesh protects the data signals from interference by
external electromagnetic waves. It is used by cable TV companies, telephone companies and
for LAN. There are two types of coaxial cable. i.e. baseband coaxial cable and broadband
coaxial cable.

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Advantages
 Faster than twisted pair cable.
 Their installation is simple.
 They are cheaper than fiber optic cable.
 They offer much resistance to EMI.

Disadvantages
The only disadvantage of coaxial cable is that they have low transmission speed than fiber
optic cable.

Fiber Optic Cable

A fiber optic cable consists of thousands of thin glass fibers or plastics fibers. Each fiber carries
data in the form of light. Each fiber is surrounded by a thin layer called cladding. The cladding
is covered by protective coating of plastics called jacket. Fiber optic use the phenomena of
total internal reflection of light. Fiber optic cables are widely used by telephone, television and
internet companies.

Advantages
 It provides high quality transmission at very high speed.
 It has a high bandwidth capacity.
 It is highly resistant to EMI.

Disadvantages
 It is difficult to install.
 It is expensive.

Ionosphere
The layer of the atmosphere which contains a high concentration of ions and free electrons
and is able to reflect radio waves. It lies above the mesosphere and extends from about 80 to
1,000 km above the earth's surface.

Transmission Impairment
Transmission impairment is a condition that causes information to be lost. Communication
lines are usually not perfect, so the receive signal is not the same as the transmitted signal.
What is sent is not what is received. The causes of impairment are:

 Attenuation
 Distortion
 Noise

Attenuation
Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a
medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium. Some of the

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electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat. To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are
used to amplify the signal.

Distortion
Distortion means that the signal changes its shape and form. This happens because a signal
is composed of multiple frequencies and each frequency in a signal has a different propagation
speed through medium. Due to this they do not reach the destination at the same speed, thus
producing different shape.

Noise
Random disturbance or fluctuation in analog or digital signal is said to be Noise in signal,
which may distort the actual information being carried. Noise can be characterized in one of
the following class:

Thermal Noise
Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire, which creates an extra signal not
originally sent by the transmitter.

Induced Noise
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as a
sending antenna, and the transmission medium acts as the receiving antenna.

Crosstalk
Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts as a sending antenna and the
other as the receiving antenna.

Impulse Noise
Impulse noise is a spike that comes from power lines, lightning, and so on.

TCP/IP Suite
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. Communications between
computers on a network done through protocol suits. A protocol suite is a group of protocols
that allow software or hardware to perform function. A protocol suit consists of a layered
architecture where each layer depicts some functionality which can be performed out by a
protocol. Each layer usually has more than one protocol options to carry out the task assigned
to that particular layer. TCP/IP is normally considered to be a four-layer system. The four
layers are as follow:

 Application Layer
 Transport Layer
 Internet Layer
 Network Access Layer

Application Layer
This is the top layer of TCP/IP protocol suite. This layer includes applications or processes
that use transport layer protocols to deliver the data to destination computers. Some of the
popular protocols of application layers are:

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 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)

Transport Layer
This layer provides backbone to data flow between hosts. Major protocols at transport layer
are TCP and UDP. TCP is used where a reliable connection is required while UDP is used in
case of unreliable connections.

Internet Layer
The main purpose of this layer is to organize or handle the movement of data on network. By
movement of data, we generally mean routing of data over the network. The main protocol
used at this layer is IP, while ICMP and IGMP are also used at this layer.

Network Access Layer

This layer is also known as network interface layer. This layer normally consists of device
drivers in the operating system (OS) and the network interface card attached to the system.
Both the device drivers and the network interface card take care of the communication details
with the media being used to transfer the data over the network. In most of the cases, this
media is in the form of cables. The famous protocols that are used at this layer are ARP
(Address Resolution Protocol) and PPP (Point to Point Protocol) etc.

Protocol
A set of rules that governs data communication. It represents an agreement between
communicating devices. These rules include guidelines that regulate the following
characteristics of a network: access method, allowed physical topologies, types of cabling,
and speed of data transfer.

History
The Internet protocol suite resulted from research and development conducted by the Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the late 1960s. After initiating the pioneering
ARPANET in 1969, DARPA started work on a number of other data transmission technologies.
In 1972, Robert E. Kahn joined the DARPA Information Processing Technology Office, where
he worked on both satellite packet networks and ground-based radio packet networks, and
recognized the value of being able to communicate across both. In the spring of 1973, Vinton
Cerf, the developer of the existing ARPANET Network Control Program (NCP) protocol, joined
Kahn to work on open-architecture interconnection models with the goal of designing the next
protocol generation for the ARPANET.

Types of Network Protocol

The following are some types of network protocol.

 Ethernet
 Local Talk
 Token Ring
 FDDI
 ATM
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Ethernet
The Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used. Ethernet uses an access method called
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection). This is a system where each
computer listens to the cable before sending anything through the network.

Local Talk
Local Talk is a network protocol that was developed by Apple Computer, Inc. for Macintosh
computers. The method used by Local Talk is called CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Avoidance). It is similar to CSMA/CD except that a computer signals its intent to
transmit before it actually does so. Local Talk adapters and special twisted pair cable can be
used to connect a series of computers through the serial port.

Token Ring
The Token Ring protocol was developed by IBM in the mid-1980s. The access method used
involves token-passing. In Token Ring, the computers are connected so that the signal travels
around the network from one computer to another in a logical ring. A single electronic token
moves around the ring from one computer to the next.

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FDDI
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a network protocol that is used primarily to
interconnect two or more local area networks, often over large distances. The access method
used by FDDI involves token-passing. FDDI uses a dual ring physical topology.

ATM
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a network protocol that transmits data at a speed of
155 Mbps and higher. ATM works by transmitting all data in small packets of a fixed size;
whereas, other protocols transfer variable length packets. ATM supports a variety of media
such as video, CD-quality audio, and imaging. ATM employs a star topology, which can work
with fiber optic as well as twisted pair cable.

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Networking Devices
The following are some important networking devices.

Repeaters
It is a physical layer device that acts on bits. It can have two or more interfaces. When a bit
(0,1) arrives, the repeater receives it and regenerates it, then transmits it onto all other
interfaces. It is Used in LAN to connect cable segments and extend the maximum cable length.
Repeaters do not implement any access method. A repeater has no filtering capability.

Hubs
It acts on the physical layer. It operates on bits rather than frames. It is also called multiport
repeater. Connection to the hub consists of two pairs of twisted pair wire one for transmission
and the other for receiving. Hub receives a bit from an adapter and sends it to all the other
adapters without implementing any access method. Multiple Hubs can be used to extend the
network length. It does not do filtering.

Switches
A switch is a computer networking multiport devices that connects computer and other devices
over a network. A network switch forwards data only to one or more multiple devices that need
to receive it. A switch process and forward data at the data link layer of the OSI model.
Switches are more intelligent and secure than hubs. Each networked device connected to a
switch can be identified using MAC address.

Routers
Router is a network device that joins multiple networks together. Router operates at the
network layer of the OSI model. Router finds the best path for the packets to travels towards
destination. Router normally connects LANs and WANs with the help of routing table. Routers
isolate both collision domains and broadcast domains.

Gateway
A network gateway is a system capable of joining together two different networks. A network
gateway can be implemented completely in software, completely in hardware, or as a
combination of both. Most gateways operate at the application layer but can also operate at
network or session layer of the OSI model. Gateway is a very intelligent device which can
translates information between different network data formats. Gateway automatically
allocates and manages IP addresses in network.

Some Terminology
Data
The collection of raw facts and figures is called data. Data can be alphanumeric, graphics,
audio, video etc.

Data rate
The rate at which circuits or other devices operate when handling digital information. The
speed at which data is transferred within the computer or between a peripheral devices and

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the computer measured in bit per speed of network. For example, 100 Base-T Ethernet is
rated at 100 Mbps also called bit rate.

Baud rate
The number of changes per second to the media being transmitted. Also the signaling rate
baud rate is measured by the number of signaling events per second. A baud is a unit of
measure for handling analog signaling. One baud corresponds to one bit per second(bbs)
although at higher signaling Speed multiple bits can be transferred in a single baud.

Peak data rate

The maximum data rate of the traffic. when there is maximum through put over a
communication channel is called peak data rate of communication.

Bursty data
Bursty data refer to data that is transferred or transmitted in short uneven spurts. Lan traffic is
typically bursty.

Digital-to-Digital Conversion
Digital-to-Digital Conversion can be done in two ways, line coding and block coding. For all
communications, line coding is necessary whereas block coding is optional.

Line Coding
The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be Line Coding. Digital data
is found in binary format. It is represented (stored) internally as series of 1s and 0s.

Digital signal is denoted by discreet signal, which represents digital data. There are three types
of line coding schemes available:

 Unipolar
 Polar
 Bipolar

Unipolar Encoding
Unipolar encoding schemes use single voltage level to represent data. In this case, to
represent binary 1, high voltage is transmitted and to represent 0, no voltage is transmitted. It
is also called Unipolar-Non-return-to-zero, because there is no rest condition i.e. it either
represents 1 or 0.

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Polar Encoding
Polar encoding scheme uses multiple voltage levels to represent binary values. Polar
encodings are available in four types:

 Polar Non Return to Zero (Polar NRZ)

 Return to Zero (RZ)
 Manchester
 Differential Manchester

Polar Non Return to Zero (Polar NRZ)

It uses two different voltage levels to represent binary values. Generally, positive voltage
represents 1 and negative value represents 0. It is also NRZ because there is no rest condition.
NRZ scheme has two variants: NRZ-L and NRZ-I. NRZ-L changes voltage level at when a
different bit is encountered whereas NRZ-I changes voltage when a 1 is encountered.

Return to Zero (RZ)

Problem with NRZ is that the receiver cannot conclude when a bit ended and when the next
bit is started, in case when sender and receiver’s clock are not synchronized. RZ uses three
voltage levels, positive voltage to represent 1, negative voltage to represent 0 and zero voltage
for none. Signals change during bits not between bits.

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Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-L. Bit time is divided into two halves.
It transits in the middle of the bit and changes phase when a different bit is encountered.

Differential Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-I. It also transits at the middle of the
bit but changes phase only when 1 is encountered.

Bipolar Encoding
Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels, positive, negative, and zero. Zero voltage
represents binary 0 and bit 1 is represented by altering positive and negative voltages.

Block Coding
To ensure accuracy of the received data frame, redundant bits are used. For example, in even-
parity, one parity bit is added to make the count of 1s in the frame even. This way the original
number of bits is increased. It is called Block Coding. Block coding is represented by slash
notation, mB/nB. Means, m-bit block is substituted with n-bit block where n > m. Block coding
involves three steps:
1. Division
2. Substitution
3. Combination
After block coding is done, it is line coded for transmission.

Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a technique by which different analog and digital streams of transmission can
be simultaneously processed over a shared link. Multiplexing divides the high capacity
medium into low capacity logical medium which is then shared by different streams. When
multiple senders try to send over a single medium, a device called Multiplexer divides the
physical channel and allocates one to each. On the other end of communication, a De-

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multiplexer receives data from a single medium, identifies each, and sends to different
receivers.

Types
The following are the types of multiplexing.

Frequency Division Multiplexing

When the carrier is frequency, FDM is used. FDM is an analog technology. FDM divides the
spectrum or carrier bandwidth in logical channels and allocates one user to each channel.
Each user can use the channel frequency independently and has exclusive access of it. All
channels are divided in such a way that they do not overlap with each other. Channels are
separated by guard bands. Guard band is a frequency which is not used by either channel.

Time Division Multiplexing

TDM is applied primarily on digital signals but can be applied on analog signals as well. In
TDM the shared channel is divided among its user by means of time slot. Each user can
transmit data within the provided time slot only. Digital signals are divided in frames, equivalent
to time slot i.e. frame of an optimal size which can be transmitted in given time slot. TDM works
in synchronized mode. Both ends, i.e. Multiplexer and De-multiplexer are timely synchronized,
and both switch to next channel simultaneously.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Light has different wavelength (colors). In fiber optic mode, multiple optical carrier signals are
multiplexed into an optical fiber by using different wavelengths. This is an analog multiplexing
technique and is done conceptually in the same manner as FDM but uses light as signals.
Further, on each wavelength time division multiplexing can be incorporated to accommodate
more data signals.

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Code Division Multiplexing

Multiple data signals can be transmitted over a single frequency by using Code Division
Multiplexing. FDM divides the frequency in smaller channels but CDM allows its users to full
bandwidth and transmit signals all the time using a unique code. CDM uses orthogonal codes
to spread signals. Each station is assigned with a unique code, called chip. Signals travel with
these codes independently, inside the whole bandwidth. The receiver knows in advance the
chip code signal it has to receive.

Switching
Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port leading towards the
destination. When data comes on a port it is called ingress, and when data leaves a port or
goes out it is called egress. A communication system may include number of switches and
nodes. At broad level, switching can be divided into two major categories:
Connectionless
The data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding tables. No previous handshaking is required
and acknowledgements are optional.
Connection Oriented
Before switching data to be forwarded to destination, there is a need to pre-establish circuit
along the path between both endpoints. Data is then forwarded on that circuit. After the
transfer is completed, circuits can be kept for future use or can be turned down immediately.

Types
The following are the types of switching.

Circuit Switching
When two nodes communicate with each other over a dedicated communication path, it is
called circuit switching. There is a need of pre-specified route from which data travels and no
other data is permitted. In circuit switching to transfer the data, circuit must be established so
that the data transfer can take place. Circuits can be permanent or temporary. Applications
which use circuit switching may have to go through three phases:

 Establish a circuit
 Transfer the data
 Disconnect the circuit

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Circuit switching was designed for voice applications. Telephone is the best suitable example
of circuit switching. Before a user can make a call, a virtual path between caller and callee is
established over the network.

Message Switching
In message switching, the whole message is treated as a data unit and is switching /
transferred in its entirety. A switch working on message switching, first receives the whole
message and buffers it until there are resources available to transfer it to the next hop. If the
next hop is not having enough resource to accommodate large size message, the message is
stored and switch waits. This technique was considered substitute to circuit switching. As in
circuit switching the whole path is blocked for two entities only.

Packet Switching
Shortcomings of message switching gave birth to an idea of packet switching. The entire
message is broken down into smaller chunks called packets. The switching information is
added in the header of each packet and transmitted independently. It is easier for intermediate
networking devices to store small size packets and they do not take much resources either on
carrier path or in the internal memory of switches. Packet switching enhances line efficiency
as packets from multiple applications can be multiplexed over the carrier. The internet uses

Tariq Shah nADAN Bcs 3RD semester

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packet switching technique. Packet switching enables the user to differentiate data streams
based on priorities. Packets are stored and forwarded according to their priority to provide
quality of service.

Tariq Shah nADAN Bcs 3RD semester