What is Air Temperature?

Posted on August 12, 2010 in Science Library with no comments

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Air temperature is a measure of how hot or cold the air is. It is the most commonly measured weather
parameter. More specifically, temperature describes the kinetic energy, or energy of motion, of the gases
that make up air. As gas molecules move more quickly, air temperature increases.

Why is Air Temperature Important?

Air temperature affects the growth and reproduction of plants and animals, with warmer temperatures
promoting biological growth. Air temperature also affects nearly all other weather parameters. For
instance, air temperature affects:
 the rate of evaporation
 relative humidity
 wind speed and direction
 Precipitation patterns and types, such as whether it will rain, snow, or sleet.

Humidity - is a term for the amount of water vapor in the air, and can refer to any one of
several measurements of humidity. Formally, humid air is not "moist air" but a mixture of
water vapor and other constituents of air, and humidity is defined in terms of the water
content of this mixture, called the Absolute humidity.[1] In everyday usage, it commonly
refers to relative humidity, expressed as a percent in weather forecasts and on
household humidistats; it is so called because it measures the current absolute
humidity relative to the maximum. Specific humidity is a ratio of the water vapor content
of the mixture to the total air content (on a mass basis). The water vapor content of the
mixture can be measured either as mass per volume or as a partial pressure,
depending on the usage.

Absolute humidity
If all the water vapor in one cubic meter of air were condensed into a container, the mass of the
water in the container could be measured with a scale to determine absolute humidity. The
amount of water vapor in that cube of air is the absolute humidity of that cubic meter of air. More
technically, absolute humidity on a volume basis is the mass of dissolved water vapor, mw, per
cubic meter of total moist air, Vnet:

Relative humidity
Main article: Relative humidity

Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor (in
a gaseous mixture of air and water vapor) to the saturated vapor pressure of water at a given
temperature. In other words, relative humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air at a
specific temperature compared to the maximum water vapor that the air is able to hold without
it condensing, at that given temperature. Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage and is
calculated in the following manner:

DEFINITION & DESCRIPTION OF WEATHER FORECAST

TERMINOLOGIES USED & ADOPTED BY PAGASA
A. Cloud Description

SKY CONDITION DEFINITION/DESCRIPTION

Clear or Sunny Skies  State of the sky when it is cloudless, totally clear or with a few small light clouds visible.

 Has a total cloud cover of less than one okta.

Partly Cloudy  State of the sky is within 2-5 oktas total cloud cover or has between 30% to 70% cover
of the celestial dome.

Partly Cloudy to at Times Cloudy  Mostly partly cloudy but there are times when more than 70% of the celestial dome is
covered with clouds.
Mostly or Mainly Cloudy  The sky is mostly covered with clouds but with possible brief periods of sunshine.

 The total cloud cover is between 6 to 8 oktas.

Cloudy  The sky is covered with clouds between 6 to 8 oktas or has more than 70% cloud
cover.

 Predominantly more clouds than clear sky.

 For a longer period during the day, the sun is obscured by clouds.

Overcast  The sky is totally or completely covered with thick and opaque clouds, 8 oktas or
around 100% cloud cover.

B. Precipitation (Rain & Rainshowers) Description

Definition: Overcast sky conditions occur when clouds cause low visibility
conditions. Although fog can cause low visibility on the ground, overcast skies are
those higher in the atmosphere. The National Weather Service uses the
abbreviation OVC to indicate overcast conditions. Typically, individual clouds are
not seen in an overcast sky.

In order to classify the sky as overcast, 90% to 100% of the sky is considered to be
covered by clouds. The penetration of sunlight is noticeably less. Other conditions
can lead to low visibility such as blowing snow, ash and dust from volcanoes,
smoke, and heavy rain. On a weather station model, the center circle will show an
estimate of cloud cover. In this case, the center circle would be completely
darkened.

Solar radiation
Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted by the sun, particularly
electromagnetic energy.

About half of the radiation is in the visible short-wave part of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
The other half is mostly in the near-infrared part, with some in the ultraviolet part of the
spectrum [1].
The portion of this ultraviolet radiation that is not absorbed by the atmosphere produces
a suntan or a sunburn on people who have been in sunlight for extended periods of
time.

Radiant energy — Radiant energy is the energy of electromagnetic waves. The term is
most commonly used in the fields of radiometry, solar energy, heating and
Solar flare — A solar flare is a violent explosion in the Sun's atmosphere with an
energy equivalent to tens of millions of hydrogen bombs. Solar flares take place
Electromagnetic spectrum — The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all
possible electromagnetic radiation. Above infrared in frequency comes visible light. This
is the ...
The ozone layer is the part of the Earth's atmosphere which contains relatively high
concentrations of ozone (O3). "Relatively high" means a few
radiation night A night with clear skies, when terrestrial long-wave radiation cannot
be partly returned to the surface by cloud. There is rapid cooling of the air close to the
ground, particularly when there is little wind, giving low minimum surface temperatures.

Greenhouse effect. Human activities are causing greenhouse gas levels in the
atmosphere to increase. This graphic explains how solar energy is absorbed by the
earth's surface, causing the earth to warm and to emit infrared radiation. The
greenhouse gases then trap the infrared radiation, thus warming the atmosphere.

Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale. On Earth, wind consists of the bulk
movement of air. In outer space, solar wind is the movement of gases or charged
particles from the sun through space, while planetary wind is the outgassing of
light chemical elements from a planet's atmosphere into space. Winds are commonly
classified by their spatial scale, their speed, the types of forces that cause them, the
regions in which they occur, and their effect. The strongest observed winds on a planet
in our solar system occur on Neptune and Saturn.

Condensation is the change of the physical state of matter from gaseous phase into
liquid phase, and is the reverse of vaporization.[1] When the transition happens from the
gaseous phase into the solid phase directly, the change is called deposition.
Condensation is initiated by the formation of atomic/molecular clusters of that species
within its gaseous volume—like rain drop or snow-flake formation within clouds—or at
the contact between such gaseous phase and a (solvent) liquid or solid surface.
A few distinct reversibility scenarios emerge here with respect to the nature of the
surface.

 absorption into the surface of a liquid (either of the same species or one of its
solvents)—is reversible as evaporation.[1]
 adsorption (as dew droplets) onto solid surface at pressures and temperatures
higher than the specie's triple point—also reversible as evaporation.
 adsorption onto solid surface (as supplemental layers of solid) at pressures and
temperatures lower than the specie's triple point—is reversible as sublimation.
Condensation commonly occurs when a vapour is cooled and/or compressed to
its saturation limit when the molecular density in the gas phase reaches its maximal
threshold. Vapour cooling and compressing equipment that collects condensed liquids
is called "condenser".
Psychrometry measures the rates of condensation from and evaporation into the air
moisture at various atmospheric pressures and temperatures. Water is the product of its
vapour condensation—condensation is the process of such phase conversion.

Precipitation rain, sleet, hail, snow and other forms of water falling from the sky
When cloud particles become too heavy to remain suspended in the air, they fall to
the earth as precipitation. Precipitation occurs in a variety of forms; hail, rain,
freezing rain, sleet or snow. This portion of the Clouds and Precipitation module
focuses on precipitation and has been organized into the following sections.
In meteorology, precipitation (also known as one of the classes of hydrometeors,
which are atmospheric water phenomena is any product of the condensation
of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity.[1] The main forms of precipitation
include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel and hail. It occurs when a local portion of the
atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapour and the water condenses.[2] Two
processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated: cooling the air
or adding water vapour to the air. Generally, precipitation will fall to the surface; an
exception is Virga which evaporates before reaching the surface. Precipitation forms as
smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within
a cloud. Rain drops range in size from oblate, pancake-like shapes for larger drops, to
small spheres for smaller drops. Unlike raindrops, snowflakes grow in a variety of
different shapes and patterns, determined by
 the temperature and humidity characteristics of the air the snowflake moves through on
its way to the ground. While snow and ice pellets require temperatures close to the
ground to be near or below freezing, hail can occur during much warmer temperature
regimes due to the process of its formation.

What is global warming?

Global warming is when the earth heats up (the temperature

rises). It happens when greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, water
vapor, nitrous oxide, and methane) trap heat and light from the sun
in the earth’s atmosphere, which increases the temperature. This
hurts many people, animals, and plants. Many cannot take the
change, so they die.

What is the greenhouse effect?

The greenhouse effect is when the temperature rises because the

sun’s heat and light is trapped in the earth’s atmosphere. This is like
when heat is trapped in a car. On a very hot day, the car gets hotter
when it is out in the parking lot. This is because the heat and light
from the sun can get into the car, by going through the windows, but
it can’t get back out. This is what the greenhouse effect does to the
earth. The heat and light can get through the atmosphere, but it
can’t get out. As a result, the temperature rises.
 The sun’s heat can get
into the car through the
windows but is then
trapped. This makes
what ever the place
might be, a greenhouse,
a car, a building, or the
earth’s atmosphere,
hotter. This diagram
shows the heat coming
into a car as visible light
(light you can see) and
infrared light
(heat). Once the light is
The squiggle lines coming from the sun inside the car, it is
are visible light and the lines and arrows trapped and the heat
inside the car are infrared light. builds up, just like it
does in the earth’s
atmosphere.

Sometimes the temperature can change in a way that helps us. The
greenhouse effect makes the earth appropriate for people to live
on. Without it, the earth would be freezing, or on the other hand it
would be burning hot. It would be freezing at night because the sun
would be down. We would not get the sun’s heat and light to make
the night somewhat warm. During the day, especially during the
summer, it would be burning because the sun would be up with no
atmosphere to filter it, so people, plants, and animals would be
exposed to all the light and heat.

Although the greenhouse effect makes the earth able to have people
living on it, if there gets to be too many gases, the earth can get
unusually warmer, and many plants, animals, and people will
die. They would die because there would be less food (plants like
corn, wheat, and other vegetables and fruits). This would happen
because the plants would not be able to take the heat. This would
cause us to have less food to eat, but it would also limit the food that
animals have. With less food, like grass, for the animals that we
need to survive (like cows) we would even have less food. Gradually,
people, plants, and animals would all die of hunger.

What are greenhouse gasses?

Greenhouse gasses are gasses are in the earth’s atmosphere that

collect heat and light from the sun. With too many greenhouse
gasses in the air, the earth’s atmosphere will trap too much heat and
the earth will get too hot. As a result people, animals, and plants
would die because the heat would be too strong.

What is global warming doing to the environment?

Global warming is affecting many parts of the world. Global warming

makes the sea rise, and when the sea rises, the water covers many
low land islands. This is a big problem for many of the
plants, animals, and people on islands. The
water covers the plants and causes some of
them to die. When they die, the animals lose a
source of food, along with their
habitat. Although animals have a better ability
to adapt to what happens than plants do, they
may die also. When the plants and animals die, people lose two
sources of food, plant food and animal food. They may also lose their
homes. As a result, they would also have to leave the area or
die. This would be called a break in the food chain, or a chain
reaction, one thing happening that leads to another and so on.

The oceans are affected by global warming in other ways, as

well. Many things that are happening to the ocean are linked to
global warming. One thing that is happening is warm water, caused
from global warming, is harming and killing algae in the ocean.

Algae is a producer
that you can see
floating on the top of
the water. (A
producer is something
that makes food for
other animals through
photosynthesis, like grass.) This floating green algae is food to many
consumers in the ocean. (A consumer is something that eats the
producers.) One kind of a consumer is small fish. There are many
others like crabs, some whales, and many other animals. Fewer
algae is a problem because there is less food for us and many
animals in the sea.

Global warming is doing many things to people as well as animals

and plants. It is killing algae, but it is also destroying many huge
forests. The pollution that causes global warming is linked to acid
rain. Acid rain gradually destroys almost everything it
touches. Global warming is also causing many more fires that wipe
out whole forests. This happens because global warming can make
the earth very hot. In forests, some plants and trees leaves can be
so dry that they catch on fire.

What causes global warming?

Many things cause global warming. One thing that causes global
warming is electrical pollution. Electricity causes pollution in many
ways, some worse than others. In most cases, fossil fuels are
burned to create electricity. Fossil fuels are made of dead plants and
animals. Some examples of fossil fuels are oil and petroleum. Many
pollutants (chemicals that pollute the air, water, and land) are sent
into the air when fossil fuels are burned. Some of these chemicals
are called greenhouse gasses.

We use these sources of energy much more than the sources that
give off less pollution. Petroleum, one of the sources of energy, is
used a lot. It is used for transportation, making electricity, and
making many other things. Although this source of energy gives off
a lot of pollution, it is used for 38% of the United States’ energy.

Some other examples of using energy and polluting the

air are:

Turning on a light
Watching T.V.
 Listening to a stereo
Washing or drying clothes
Using a hair dryer
Riding in a car
Heating a meal in the microwave
Using an air conditioner
Playing a video game
Using a dish washer

When you do these things, you are causing more greenhouse gasses
to be sent into the air. Greenhouse gasses are sent into the air
because creating the electricity you use to do these things causes
pollution. If you think of how many times a day you do these things,
it’s a lot. You even have to add in how many other people do these
things! That turns out to be a lot of pollutants going into the air a
day because of people like us using electricity. The least amount of
electricity you use, the better.

When we throw our garbage away, the garbage goes to

landfills. Landfills are those big hills that you go by on
an expressway that stink. They are full of
garbage. The garbage is then sometimes burned. This
sends an enormous amount of greenhouse gasses into
the air and makes global warming worse.

Another thing that makes global warming worse is when people cut
down trees. Trees and other plants collect carbon dioxide (CO2),
which is a greenhouse gas.

Carbon dioxide is the air that our body lets out when we breathe.
With fewer trees, it is harder for people to breathe because there is
more CO2 in the air, and we don’t breathe CO2, we breathe
oxygen. Plants collect the CO2 that we breathe out, and they give
back oxygen that we breathe in. With less trees and other plants,
such as algae, there is less air for us, and more greenhouse gases
are sent into the air. This means that it is very important to protect
our trees to stop the greenhouse effect, and also so we can breathe
and live.

This gas, CO2, collects light and heat (radiant energy), produced by
the sun, and this makes the earth warmer. The heat and light from
the sun is produced in the center of the sun. (The sun has layers just
like the earth.)

The dirty yellow color on outside is

the surface. The light and dark
yellow colored area is the
convection zone. The orange
colored area is the radiative zone,
and the red colored area is the
 core. The squiggle lines represent
radiant energy.
This layer is called the
core. Just like a core of an
apple, it is in the middle. Here there is a very high temperature,
about 27,000,000F. This heat escapes out of this layer to the next
layer, the radiative zone. This layer is cooler, about
4,500,000F. Gradually, the heat and light will pass through the
convection zone at a temperature of around 2,000,000F. When it
gets to the surface, the temperature is about 10,000F. Finally, the
heat and light is sent into space. This is called radiant energy (heat
and light). The radiant energy reaches the earth’s atmosphere. As a
result of this process we get light and heat. When you pollute, you
send chemicals into the air that destroy our atmosphere, so more
heat and light cannot escape from the earth’s atmosphere.

What are people doing to stop global warming?

People are doing many things to try to stop global warming. One
thing people are doing is carpooling. Carpooling is driving with
someone to a place that you are both going to. This minimizes the
amount of greenhouse gases put into the air by a car.

Another thing that people are doing is being more careful about
leaving things turned on like the television, computer, and the
lights. A lot of people are taking time away from the television, and
instead, they are spending more time outdoors. This helps our
planet out a lot. Now, more people are even riding busses, walking
to school, and riding their bikes to lower the amount of greenhouse
gases in the air. Planting trees and recycling also helps. If you
recycle, less trash goes to the dump, and less trash gets burned. As
a result, there are fewer greenhouse gasses in our atmosphere.

Watch what you buy. Many things, such as hairspray and deodorant,
now are made to have less of an impact on the atmosphere. Less
greenhouse gasses will rise into the air, and global warming will slow
down.

What is the government doing to stop global warming?

The government is doing many things to help stop global warming.
The government made a law called The Clean Air Act so there is less
air pollution. Global warming is making people get very bad illnesses
that could make them disabled, very sick, and sometimes even
die. The Clean Air Act is making many companies change their
products to decrease these problems. Part of the law says that you
may not put a certain amount of pollutants in the air. Hairspray and
some other products, like foam cups, had this problem. Making and
using these products let out too much volatile organic compounds
(VOC’s), ozone-destroying chemicals (chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s),
and related chemicals (such as CO2) into the air. Now, almost all of
these products have a label on them telling people what this product
can do to the environment and many people. By 2015 all products
listed on the Clean Air Act will have this label on them:

WARNING: contains or manufactured with

(the chemical would go here. For
example chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s), a
substance which harms public health and
the environment by destroying ozone in
the upper atmosphere.

Almost all of the other chemicals that could be harmful will have this
label on them hopefully by this time (2015) as well.

The Clean Air Act has also made car companies change some of the
things inside of the cars. Cars pollute a lot. While cars make more
than half of the world’s smog (visible pollution in the air), many
things that cars need to move and heat up make even more
pollution. Some things that are inside of cars, buses, trucks, and
motorcycles, like gasoline, pollute the air when the fuel is burned. It
comes out as a chemical and when mixed in the air, forms
smog. Smog is a kind of pollution that you see in the form of a
cloud. If you have ever been to California you can see a lot of smog
in some places. Sometimes the smog gets so bad that you cannot
see at all! Smog forms when car exhaust, pollution from homes, and
pollution from factories mixes in the air and has a chemical
reaction. The sun’s heat and light add to the reaction.
Cars, buses, and trucks are also responsible for over 50% of
dangerous chemicals let into the air. Some of these chemicals can
cause cancer, birth defects, trouble breathing, brain and nerve
damage, lung injures, and burning eyes. Some of the pollutants are
so harmful that they can even cause death.

What are some of the other dangerous chemicals?

Some other chemicals that cause air pollution and are bad for the
environment and people are:

Ozone- Ozone is produced when other pollution chemicals

combine. It is the basic element of smog. It causes many
different kinds of health issues dealing with the lungs. It can
damage plants and limit sight. It can also cause a lot of property
damage.
VOC’s (volatile organic compounds, smog formers)- VOC’s are
let into the air when fuel is burned. This chemical can cause
cancer. It can also harm plants.
NOx (nitrogen dioxide)- This chemical forms smog. It is also
formed by burning sources of energy, like gas, coal, and oil, and
by cars. This chemical causes problems in the respiratory
system (including the lungs). It causes acid rain, and it can
damage trees. This chemical can eat away buildings and
statues.
CO (carbon monoxide)- The source of this chemical is burning
sources of energy. It causes blood vessel problems and
respiratory failures.
PM-10 (particulate matter)- The source of this chemical is
plowing and burning down fields. It can cause death and lung
damage. It can make it hard for people to breathe. The smoke,
soot, ash, and dust formed by this chemical can make many
cities dirty.
Sulfur Dioxide- This chemical is produced by making paper and
metals. This chemical can cause permanent lung damage. It
can cause acid rain which kills trees and damages building and
statues.
Lead- This chemical is in paint, leaded gasoline, smelters, and in
lead storage batteries. It can cause many brain and nerve
 damages and digestive problems.

Test yourself on global warming by figuring out a word

search at the website below. When you enter this
website, you will have to click on Global Warming
Word Search to enter the page. Click on the website
below to test yourself on global
warming. http://globalwarming.enviroweb.org/games/

Kid can help stop global warming, too!!

Although adults do many things to help stop global warming, kids can
do just as much. Kids can’t do hard things like making a law, but we
can do easier things like not watching as much TV. You can listen to
your parents when they say, turn off your lights or go play
outside. Listening to them and actually trying to help can help you,
your environment, and the world.

Global Warming
hroughout its long history, Earth has warmed and cooled time and again.
Climate has changed when the planet received more or less sunlight due to
subtle shifts in its orbit, as the atmosphere or surface changed, or when the
Sun’s energy varied. But in the past century, another force has started to
influence Earth’s climate: humanity
What is Global Warming?
Global warming is the unusually rapid increase in Earth’s average surface
temperature over the past century primarily due to the greenhouse gases
released by people burning fossil fuels.
How Does Today’s Warming Compare to Past Climate Change?
Earth has experienced climate change in the past without help from humanity.
But the current climatic warming is occurring much more rapidly than past
warming events.
Why Do Scientists Think Current Warming Isn’t Natural?
In Earth’s history before the Industrial Revolution, Earth’s climate changed due
to natural causes unrelated to human activity. These natural causes are still in
play today, but their influence is too small or they occur too slowly to explain
the rapid warming seen in recent decades.
How Much More Will Earth Warm?
Models predict that as the world consumes ever more fossil fuel, greenhouse
gas concentrations will continue to rise, and Earth’s average surface
temperature will rise with them. Based on plausible emission scenarios, average
surface temperatures could rise between 2°C and 6°C by the end of the 21st
century. Some of this warming will occur even if future greenhouse gas
emissions are reduced, because the Earth system has not yet fully adjusted to
environmental changes we have already made.
How Will Earth Respond to Warming Temperatures?
The impact of global warming is far greater than just increasing temperatures.
Warming modifies rainfall patterns, amplifies coastal erosion, lengthens the
growing season in some regions, melts ice caps and glaciers, and alters the
ranges of some infectious diseases. Some of these changes are already
occurring.

Global Warming Effects Will

Drastically Change Your Life
 A shocking rise in sea levels around the world will occur from the melting ice. If all
the polar and glacial ice melts, the water level will increase by 230 feet worldwide. [1]
 Your hometown could be underwater by the end of the century. Major cities
including New York, Miami, Tokyo, Mumbai, Venice, Shanghai, and many others will be
among those affected. [2]
 Great migrations will disrupt your city and life as people relocating from coastal
areas will have to move more inland. Your local roads and bridges will be overloaded
from the strain.
 You’ll be affected by wars over land, water, and food; the world’s population,
estimated to be 9 billion by 2050, will have less land to live on and many fewer
resources per person. [3]
 You’ll experience water and food shortages as droughts affect the water supply and
prevent farmers from growing crops. Agriculture all over the world will be affected,
meaning that many people will starve. [4]
 Intense, more frequent weather events will strike your home; rising ocean
temperatures will lead to more hurricanes and typhoons; droughts, heat waves,
flooding, and tornadoes will be more common, too.
 You may not be able to get help during a natural disaster from over-worked relief
organizations; with the increase in extreme weather events, there simply may not be
enough help.
 Your family may not have enough food as the intricate food chain gets disrupted.
Many species won’t be able to cope with the increasing temperatures and will die off,
throwing the food chain off-balance.
 The ocean’s fragile ecosystem will be disrupted as coral reefs, an integral part of
the ocean, bleach and die from the increase in water temperatures. [5]
 You could get deadly diseases as heavy rains may contaminate water supplies, and
more disease-carrying bugs thrive off the warming temperatures. Human health will
suffer because milder winters allow the vectors of malaria, dengue fever and Lyme
disease to expand their range.
 A mini-Ice Age could strike Europe. The oceans’ important currents will be
changed as more ice melts. The increase in freshwater from melting glaciers in the Arctic
and Greenland could cause the Atlantic’s powerful Gulf Stream current to shut down,
sending Europe into a mini-Ice Age.

HOT DRY CLIMATE

Because of the intense sunshine we need: -

 Pale surfaces (especially the roof) to reflect the sun;

 Double roof;
 Reflective foil insulation in the roof and walls is essential;
 Small north-facing windows, set high under wide eaves. The hotter the summer, the smaller the
windows and the wider the eaves. There is a tradeoff, however: small windows reduce night
ventilation.
 No windows on eastern or western side of the house;
 Shading for any south-facing windows, if house site is north of 23.5 degrees S;
 Vegetation and/or verandahs around the house, if water supply permits, to provide shade;
 Earth-sheltered and underground housing are ideally suited to this climate;
 This is the perfect climate for solar power.

Because of the low humidity of the air: -

 Evaporative coolers work well in the dry atmosphere, and use little energy;
 The natural evaporative cooling effect of plants will be specially effective;
 Water features such as fountains and little garden pools are beneficial, if water supply permits.

Because of the large day/night temperature swing: -

 Considerable heat-storage capacity (bricks, stone, concrete) is needed in living areas, to keep
daytime temperatures down;
 Bedrooms should be of lighter construction, so they cool quickly at night;
 Through ventilation on summer nights is essential (check the prevailing wind direction on warm
summer nights). Roof-mounted exhaust fans can cool buildings at night by extracting hot air via
grilles in the ceiling and replacing it with cool air drawn in through open windows;
Because blowing dust can be a problem in this dry climate: -

 Vegetation around the house is desirable, to filter dust from the air, by impaction. Check with the
Bureau of Meteorology office in your state. How common are dust-storms in the district; what is
the usual wind direction when blowing dust is reported? Plant trees to block this wind, if blowing
dust is a problem in the area.

If you decide to air-condition some or part of your house, the air-conditioned part of your house
needs bulkinsulation.

Hot and Dry Climate

Hot and dry climatic regions are characterised by very high radiation levels,
ambient temperatures and relatively low humidity.

The design objectives in such a climate should be aimed at:

(A) Resisting heat gain:
Heat gain can be resisted by:
 Decreasing the surface of the building exposed to the outside.
 Using materials that take a longer time to heat up.
 Providing buffer spaces between the living areas and the outside.
 Decreasing ventilation during daytime in the summers.
 Providing adequate shading devices.
(B) Promoting heat loss:
Some measures to promote heat loss are:
 Providing for ventilation of various appliances used.
 Increasing ventilation during cooler parts of the day or night time.
 Providing for evaporative cooling (e.g. roof surface evaporative
cooling).
 Using earth coupling systems like earth-air pipes.
General recommendations for the climate are:
(1) Site
(a) Landform:
 Regions in this zone are generally flat and heat up uniformly.
 In case of an undulating site, constructing on the leeward side of the
slope is preferred.
This protects the building from direct impact of hot winds which can be quite
uncomfortable.

.
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Building in a depression is preferable in cases where ventilation is

assured.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

(b) Waterbodies
 Waterbodies like ponds and lakes act as heat sinks and can also be
used for evaporative cooling. They humidify the air and make it comfortable
inside.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Fountains and water cascades in the vicinity of a building also aid in

cooling.
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings
(c) Street width and orientation
Streets must be narrow so that they cause mutually shade the buildings.
Streets need to be oriented in the north-south direction to block solar
radiation.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

(d) Open spaces and built form:

 Open spaces such as courtyards and atria promote ventilation.
 They can be provided with ponds and fountains for evaporative
cooling.
 Courtyards act as heat sinks during the day and radiate the heat back
at night.
 Grass can be used as ground cover to absorb solar radiation and aid
evaporative cooling.
 Earth berming can help lower the temperature and also deflect hot
summer winds.
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

(2) Orientation and planform

 An east-west orientation is preferred in hot and dry climatic regions.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 South and north facing walls are easier to shade than east and west
walls. During summer, the south wall with significant exposure to solar
radiation in most parts of India, leads to very high temperatures in south-
west rooms. Hence, shading of the south wall is imperative.
 The surface to volume (S/V) ratio should be kept as minimum as
possible to reduce heat gains.
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Cross-ventilation must be ensured at night as ambient temperatures

during this period are low.

(3) Building Envelope

(a) Roof
 Flat roofs or vaulted roofs are ideal in this climate. Nonetheless, a
vaulted roof provides a larger surface area for heat loss compared to a flat
roof.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 The material of the roof should be massive; a reinforced cement

concrete (RCC) slab is preferred to asbestos cement (AC) sheet roof.
 External insulation in the form of mud phuska with inverted earthen
pots is also suitable.
 A false ceiling in rooms having exposed roofs is favourable as the
space between the two acts as a heat buffer. Thermal insulation over false
ceiling further increases the buffer action.
 Insulation of roofs makes the buildings more energy efficient than
insulating the walls.
 Evaporative cooling of the roof surface and night time radiative cooling
can also be employed.
 Incase of evaporative cooling, it is better to use a roof having high
thermal transmittance.

(b) Walls
 In multi-storeyed buildings, walls and glazing account for most of the
heat gain.
 The control of heat gain through the walls by shading, thus, becomes
an important design consideration.
 A wall that transmits less heat is hence feasible.

(c) Fenestration
 In hot and dry climates, reducing the window area leads to lower
indoor temperatures.
 More windows should be provided in the north facade of the building
as compared to the east, west and south as it receives lesser radiation
throughout the year
 All openings should be protected from the sun by using external
shading devices such as chhajjas and fins.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Moveable shading devices such as curtains and venetian blinds can

also be used.
 Ventilators are preferred at higher levels as they help in throwing out
the hot air.
 Since daytime temperatures are high during summer, the windows
should be kept closed to keep the hot air out and opened during night-time
to admit cooler air.
 The use of 'jaalis'(lattice work) made of wood, stone or RCC may be
considered as it they allow ventilation while blocking solar radiation.
Scheduling air changes (i.e. high ventilation rate at night and during cooler
periods of the day, and lower ones during daytime) can significantly help in
reducing the discomfort.
 The heat gain through windows can be reduced by using glass with low
transmissivity.

(D) Colour and textures

  Change of colour is a cheap and effective technique for lowering indoor
temperatures.
 Colours that absorb less heat should be used to paint the external
surface.
 Darker shades should be avoided for surfaces exposed to direct solar
radiation.
 The surface of the roof can be of white broken glazed tiles.
 The surface of the wall should preferably be textured to facilitate self
shading.
Remarks
 As the winters in this region are uncomfortably cold, windows should
be designed such that they encourage direct gain during this period.
 Deciduous trees can be used to shade the building during summer and
admit sunlight during winter.
 Well-insulated and very thick walls give a good thermal performance if
the glazing is kept to a minimum and windows are well-shaded.
 In case of non-conditioned buildings, a combination of insulated walls
and high percentage of glazing will lead to very uncomfortable indoor
conditions as the building will tend to act like a green house with the
insulated walls preventing the radiation from the windows from escaping
into the environment.
 Indoor plants can be provided near the window, as they help in
evaporative cooling and in absorbing solar radiation.
 Evaporative cooling and earth air pipe systems can be used effectively
in this climate.
 Desert coolers are extensively used in this climate, and if properly
sized, they can help in achieving comfort levels

Composite Climate
Regions having a composite climate display characteristics of hot and dry, warm
and humid as well as cold climates. Design of buildings here should be guided by
longer prevailing climatic conditions. Uncomfortable periods in each season need
to be prioritized to generate the necessary guidelines for design.
The objectives of building design should be:
(A) Resisting heat gain
Unwanted heat gain can be reduced by
 Decreasing the surface area of the building exposed to the outside.
 Using materials that absorb heat slowly.
  Providing buffer spaces.
 Providing adequate shading devices.
(B) Promoting heat loss
To promote heat loss, the following measures need to be undertaken:
 Ventilating appliances used.
 Providing evaporative cooling systems like roof surface evaporative cooling.
 Using earth coupling systems like earth air pipe system.
(C) Promoting ventilation
 Increasing the rate of ventilation during cooler parts of the day or night-time and
during the humid periods is a necessity in composite climatic areas.
General recommendations for the climate are:
(1) Site
(a) Landform
 Regions in this zone are generally flat and heat up uniformly.
(b) Waterbodies
 Waterbodies like ponds and lakes act as heat sinks and can also be used for
evaporative cooling.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Fountains and water cascades in the vicinity of a building also aid in cooling.
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 However, it has to be ensured that these water bodies do not increase the relative
humidity during the humid seasons.
(c) Street width and orientation
 Streets must be narrow so that buildings mutually shade each other. They need to
be oriented in the north-south direction to block solar radiation.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

(d) Open spaces and built form
 Open spaces such as courtyards and atria promote ventilation.
 They can be provided with ponds and fountains for evaporative cooling.
 Courtyards act as heat sinks during the day and radiate the heat back at night.
 Grass can be used as ground cover to absorb solar radiation and aid evaporative
cooling.
 Earth berming can help lower the temperature and also deflect hot summer winds.
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings
(2) Orientation and Planform
 An east-west orientation is preferred as northern and southern walls are easier to
shade.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 During summer, the south wall which gets significant exposure to solar radiation in
most parts of India, leads to very high temperatures in south-west rooms. Hence, shading
of the south wall is imperative.
 The surface to volume ratio should be kept as minimum as possible to reduce heat
gains.
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Cross-ventilation must be ensured at night as ambient temperatures during this

period are low.
(3) Building Envelope
(a) Roof
 Flat roofs may be used in this climate.
 A massive roof structure like a reinforced cement concrete RCC slab is preferrable
over an asbestos cement AC sheet roof.
 External insulation in the form of mud phuska with inverted earthen pots is quite
suitable.
 A false ceiling in rooms having exposed roofs can help in reducing the discomfort
level.
 Provision of roof insulation yields greater lifecycle savings compared to walls in this
climate.
 Evaporative cooling of the roof surface and night-time radiative cooling are measures
that can also be employed to improve comfort levels.
 Incase the former is used, it is better to have a roof that will cool down fast.
(b) Walls
 In multi-storeyed buildings, walls and glazing account for most of the heat gain. So,
the control of heat gain through the walls by shading is an important consideration in
building design.
 A wall that takes a longer time to heat up reduces the heat gain.
(c) Fenestration
 Minimising the window area leads to lower indoor temperatures.
 More windows should be provided in the north facade of the building as compared to
the east, west and south as it receives lesser radiation during the year.
  All openings should be protected from the sun by using external shading devices
such as chhajjas and fins.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Moveable shading devices such as curtains and venetian blinds can also be used.
 Since daytime temperatures are high during summer, the windows should be kept
closed to keep the hot air out and opened during night time to admit cooler air.
 The use of 'jaalis'(lattice work) made of wood, stone or RCC may be considered as
they allow ventilation while blocking solar radiation. Measures to control ventilation of the
building as and when required makes it more comfortable indoors.
 The heat gain through windows can be reduced by using glass with low
transmissivity.
(d) Colour and texture
 Change of colour is a cheap and effective technique for lowering indoor
temperatures.
 Colours having low absorptivity should be used to paint the external surface.
 Darker shades should be avoided for surfaces exposed to direct solar radiation.
 The surface of the roof can be of white broken glazed tiles.
 The surface of the wall should preferably be textured to facilitate self shading.
Remarks
 As the winters in this region are uncomfortably cold, windows should be designed
such that they encourage direct gain of solar heat during this period.
 Deciduous trees can be used to shade the building during summer and admit
sunlight during winter.
 Well-insulated and very thick walls give a good thermal performance if the glazing is
kept to a minimum and windows are well shaded.
 In case of non-conditioned buildings, a combination of insulated walls and high
percentage of glazing will lead to very uncomfortable indoor conditions.
  Indoor plants can be provided near the window, as they help in evaporative cooling
and in absorbing solar radiation.
 Evaporative cooling and earth air pipe systems can be used effectively in this
climate.
 Desert coolers are extensively used in this climate, and if properly sized, they can
help in achieving comfort levels.

Moderate Climate
In regions with a moderate climate, prevalent temperatures are neither too high nor too
low. Techniques such as shading, cross ventilation, orientation, reflective glazing, etc. need
to be incorporated into buildings so as to maximise their energy efficiency. The thermal
resistance and heat capacity of walls and roofs need not be very high as the prevalent
temperatures are generally within human comfort levels.

The main objectives while designing buildings in this zone should be:
(A) Resisting heat gain
To resist heat gain the measures that can be adopted are:
(a) The exposed surface area of the building be reduced.
(b) Using materials that absorb heat slowly.
(c) Adequately shading the building.
(B) Promoting heat loss
Heat loss can be promoted through
(a) Proper ventilation of appliances used.
(b) Increasing the rate of ventilation in the building.
In this region, the general recommendations are:
(1) Site
(a) Landform
 Building the structure on the windward slopes is preferable for getting cool breeze
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings
(b) Open spaces and built form
 An open and free layout of the buildings is preferred.
 Large open spaces in the form of lawns can be provided to reduce reflected radiation.
(2) Orientation and Planform
 It is preferable to have a building oriented in the north-south direction.
 Living areas like bedrooms may be located on the eastern side to allow for heat
penetration in the mornings, and an open porch on the south south east side allows heat
gain in the winters while providing for shade in the summers. The western side should
ideally be well-shaded.
 Humidity producing areas must be isolated.
 Sunlight is desirable except in summer, so the depth of the interiors need not be
excessive.
(3) Building Envelope
(a) Roof
 Insulating the roof does not make much of a difference in the moderate climate.

(b) Walls
 Insulation of walls does not give significant improvement in the thermal performance
of a building.
(c) Fenestration
 The arrangement of windows is important for reducing heat gain.
 Windows can be larger in the north, while those on the east, west and south should
be smaller.
 All the windows should be shaded with chajjas of appropriate lengths.
 Glazing of low transmissivity should be used.
(d) Colour and texture
  Pale colours are preferable; dark colours may be used only in recessed places
protected from the summer sun.

Hot and Humid Climate

In hot and humid climatic regions, high temperatures are accompanied by very high
humidity levels leading to immense discomfort. Cross ventilation is hence very essential
here. Adequate shading measures are also necessary to protect the building from direct
solar radiation.

The main design objectives should be:

(A) Resisting heat gain

Measures that are convenient to resist unwanted heat gain are:
(a) Decreasing surface area of the building exposed to the outside.
(b) Using materials that take a longer time to heat up.
(c) Providing buffer spaces between the outside and the inside.
(d) Increasing shading of the building in general.
(e) Using materials that reflect heat.

(B) Promoting heat loss

To promote heat lost it is essential to ensure:
(a) Appliances used are well ventilated.
(b) Proper ventilation occurs throughout the day.
(c) Humidity levels are reduced as much as possible.

General recommendations for building design in warm and humid climate are:
(1) Site
(a) Landform
 For flat sites, design considerations for the landform is immaterial.
 Incase of slopes and depressions, the building should be located on the windward
side or crest to take advantage of cool breezes.
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

(b) Waterbodies
 Water bodies are not essential as they would tend to further increase the humidity.
(c) Open spaces and built form
 Buildings should be spread out with large open spaces in between for unrestricted air
movement.

 In cities, buildings on stilts can promote ventilation and cause cooling at the ground
level.
(d) Street width and orientation
 Major streets should be oriented parallel to or within 30 of the prevailing wind
direction during summer months to encourage ventilation in warm and humid regions.
 A north-south direction is ideal from the point of view of blocking solar radiation.
 The width of the streets should be such that the intense solar radiation during late
morning and early afternoon is avoided during the summers.
(2) Orientation and Plan form
 As temperatures are not very high, free plans can be evolved as long as the house is
under protective shade.
 An unobstructed air path through the interiors is important to ensure proper
ventilation.
  The buildings could be long and narrow to allow cross-ventilation. For example, a
singly loaded corridor plan (i.e. one with rooms on one side only) is preferable over a
doubly loaded one.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Heat and moisture producing areas like toilets and kitchens must be ventilated and
separated from the rest of the structure.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Semiopen spaces such as balconies, verandahs and porches can be used

advantageously for daytime activities as well as give protection from rainfall.
 In multistoreyed buildings a central courtyard can be provided with vents at higher
levels to draw away the rising hot air.
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

(3) Building Envelope

(a) Roof
 In addition to providing shelter from rain and heat, the form of the roof should be
planned to promote air flow.
 Vents at the rooftop effectively induce ventilation and draw hot air out.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Insulation does not provide any additional benefit for a normal RCC roof in a non-
conditioned building.
 However, very thin roofs having low thermal mass, such as AC sheet roofing, require
insulation as they tend to rapidly radiate heat into the interiors during daytime.
 A double roof with a ventilated space in between can also be used to promote air
flow. The space in between can also act as a heat buffer.
(b) Walls:
 The walls must also be designed to promote air flow so as to counter the prevalent
humidity.
  Baffle walls, both inside and outside the building can help to divert the flow of wind
inside.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 They should be protected from the heavy rainfall prevalent in such areas.
 If adequately sheltered, exposed brick walls and mud plastered walls work very well
by absorbing the humidity and helping the building to breathe.

(c) Fenestration
 Cross-ventilation is of utmost importance in warm and humid climatic regions.
 All doors and windows should preferably be kept open for maximum ventilation for
most of the year.
 These must be provided with venetian blinds or louvers to shelter the rooms from
the sun and rain, as well as for the control of air movement.
 Openings of a comparatively smaller size can be placed on the windward side, while
the corresponding openings on the leeward side should be bigger for facilitating a plume
effect for natural ventilation.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

  The openings should be shaded by external overhangs.
 Outlets at higher levels serve to vent hot air.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

Examples illustrating how the air movement within a room can be better
distributed

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

(d) Colour and texture

 The walls should be painted with light pastel shades or whitewashed, while the
surface of the roof can be of broken glazed tile (china mosaic flooring) to reflect the
sunlight back to the environment, and hence reduce heat gain of the building.
 The use of appropriate colours and surface finishes is a cheap and very effective
technique to lower indoor temperatures.
 The surface finish should be protected from/ resistant to the effects of moisture.
Remarks
 Ceiling fans are effective in reducing the level of discomfort in this type of climate.
 Desiccant cooling techniques can also be employed as they reduce the humidity
level.
 Careful water proofing and drainage of water are essential considerations of building
design due to heavy rainfall.
 In case of airconditioned buildings, dehumidification plays a significant role in the
design of the plant.

Cold Climate
Regions that fall under the cold climate experience very cold winters. As such, trapping the
sun’s heat whenever possible is a major design concern. At the same time, the buildings in
such regions need to be properly insulated so that the internal heat is retained with
minimum loss to the environment. Exposure to cold winds should also be minimised.
The main objectives of building design in these zones are:
(A) Resisting heat loss
To resist heat loss, the following measures may be taken into consideration:

 (a) Decrease the exposed surface area of the building.

 (b) Using materials that heat up fast but release heat slowly.
 (c) Providing buffer spaces between the living area and the outside.
  (d) Decreasing the rate of ventilation inside the building.
(B) Promoting heat gain
Heat gain can be promoted by

 (a) Avoiding excessive shading.

 (b) Utilising the heat from appliances.
 (c) Trapping the heat of the sun.
The general recommendations for these climatic regions are
(1) Site
(a) Landform
 In cold climates, heat gain is desirable. Hence, buildings should be located on the
south slope of a hill or mountain for better access to solar radiation.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Exposure to cold winds can be minimized by locating the building on the leeward
side. In case the southern side is the windward side. The building should be glazed in such
a manner that minimum wind enters the building.
 Parts of the site which offer natural wind barrier can be chosen for constructing a
building.
(b) Open spaces and built forms
 Buildings can be clustered together to minimize exposure to cold winds.
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Open spaces between buildings must be such that they allow maximum solar rays to
be incident on the building.
 They should be treated with a halt and reflective surface so that day reflect solar
radiation onto the building.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

(c) Street width and orientation
 In cold climates, the street orientation should be east-west to allow for maximum
south sun to enter the building.
 The street should be wide enough to ensure that the buildings on one side do not
shade those on the other side (i.e. solar access should be ensured)
Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings
(2) Orientation and Planform
 Buildings must be compact with small surface to volume ratios to reduce heat loss.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Windows should face south to facilitate direct gain.

 The north side of the building should be well-insulated.
 Living areas can be located on the southern side while utility areas such as stores
can be on the northern side.
 Air-lock lobbies at the entrance and exit points of the building reduce heat loss.
 Heat generated by appliances in rooms such as kitchens may be used to heat the
other parts of the building.
(3) Building Envelope
(a) Roof
 False ceilings with internal insulation such as polyurethane foam (PUF), thermocol,
wood wool, etc. are feasible for houses in cold climates.
  Aluminium foil is generally used between the insulation layer and the roof to reduce
heat loss to the exterior.
 A sufficiently sloping roof enables quick drainage of rain water and snow.
 A solar air collector can be incorporated on the south facing slope of the roof and hot
air from it can be used for space heating purposes.
 Skylights on the roofs admit heat as well as light in winters.

Source: Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

 Skylights can be provided with shutters to avoid over heating in summers.

(b) Walls
 Walls should be made of materials that lose heat slowly.
 The south-facing walls (exposed to solar radiation) could be of high thermal capacity
(such as Trombe wall) to store day time heat for later used.
 The walls should also be insulated.
 The insulation should have sufficient vapour barrier (such as two coats of bitumen,
300 to 600 gauge polyethylene sheet or aluminium foil) on the warm side to avoid
condensation.
 Hollow and lightweight concrete blocks are also quite suitable.
 Skylights can be provided with shutters to avoid over heating in summers.
 On the windward or north side, a cavity wall type of construction may be adopted.
(c) Fenestration
 It is advisable to have the maximum window area on the southern side of the
building to facilitate direct heat gain.
 They should be sealed and preferably double glazed to avoid heat losses during
winter nights.
 Condensation in the air space between the panes should be prevented,
 Movable shades should be provided to prevent overheating in summers.
(d) Colour and texture
 The external surfaces of the walls should be dark in color so that day absorb heat
from the sun.
Thermal Mass

Thermal mass is a property that enables building materials to absorb, store, and later release
significant amounts of heat. Buildings constructed of concrete and masonry have a unique energy-
saving advantage because of their inherent thermal mass. These materials absorb energy slowly and
hold it for much longer periods of time than do less massive materials. This delays and reduces heat
transfer through a thermal mass building component, leading to three important results.

1. There are fewer spikes in the heating and cooling requirements, since mass slows the
response time and moderates indoor temperature fluctuations.
2. A massive building uses less energy than a similar low mass building due to the reduced heat
transfer through the massive elements.
3. Thermal mass can shift energy demand to off-peak time periods when utility rates are lower.
Since power plants are designed to provide power at peak loads, shifting the peak load can
reduce the number of power

LATEN HEAT
The quantity of heat absorbed or released by a substance undergoing a
change of state, such as ice changing to water or water to steam, at constant
temperature and pressure. Also called heat of transformation.

Psychrometry Psychrometry is the science of studying the thermodynamic

properties of moist air and the use of these properties to analyze conditions and
processes involving moist air.

Moist air is a mixture of dry air and water vapour. In atmospheric air, water vapour
content varies from 0 to 3% by mass.

Relative Humidity
The Relative Humidity (RH) is the ratio of the actual water vapour pressure to the
saturation
water vapour pressure at the prevailing temperature.
RH = p/ps
RH is usually expressed as a percentage rather than as a fraction. In the biological
literature,
however, the RH is often expressed as a fraction and is then called the water activity

The Dew Point

The water vapour content of air is often quoted as dew point. This is the temperature to
which
the air must be cooled before dew condenses from it. At this temperature the actual
water
vapour content of the air is equal to the saturation water vapour pressure. The dew
point is
usually calculated from the RH. First one calculates ps, the saturation vapour pressure
at the
ambient temperature. The actual water vapour pressure, pa,