WOOD

TIMBER
Is a type of wood which has been processed into beams and planks. It is also
known as “lumber” in US and Canada. Basically, timber or Lumber is a wood or
firewood of growing trees. For construction is one of the many forest products used
around the world. Any wood capable of yielding a minimum dimensional size can be
termed as a timber or lumber. It is used in buildings both large and small.

TYPES OF TIMBER
Timber are categories in two different type:

HARDWOOD (ANGIOSPERM) SOFTWOOD (GYMNOSPERM)

 Bamboo  Cedar
 Birch  Fir
 Cherry  Pine
 Oak  Spruce
 Mahogany
 Walnut

HARDWOOD

Bamboo
 Bamboo is a natural organic material. It is one of the most
unique plants on earth. Bamboo is grown in abundance in
many parts of the world, especially in tropical and subtropical
regions. Most timber producing bamboos are from South
Asia. The color of bamboo timber is pale yellow to almost
gold. It is an industrial material also identified as the most
promising building material. Bamboo timber is an alternative
to tropical hardwoods in recent years. It is available in many
forms.
Birch
 Birch is a great craft-wood. It is an important source of
hardwood timber. Birch is of many types of like-yellow birch,
white birch etc. Yellow birch is commonly used which is
also known as gray birch, or swamp birch. It is light reddish
brown color. Birch gives low natural luster.

Cherry
 Cherry timber is grown as a tree plantation timber. Among
different types of cherry timbers, black cherry timber is the
largest of the native cherries and the only of commercial
value. It is found throughout the Eastern United Nations. In
cherry timber, the grain is generally straight. It is a
hardwood. It has medium density and moderately durable.
And used for small pieces of furnitures-veneers, handles,
cabinets, scientific instruments etc.

Oak
 Oak timber is a type of hardwood from the oak tree. It has
been used as timber for thousands of years. It is straight
grained. It is used for light construction most of the time.
Oak timber is used for -homeware, wine barrels, firewood
etc.

Mahogany
 Mahogany is a high-quality timber. It is grown commercially
almost in every continent. Mahogany is widely used in the
furniture and cabinet building industry. It is made into
plywoods and all kinds of trim. It displays hard grain. It is
one of the softer of all the hardwoods that are commonly in
use. It is moderate natural luster. The color of mahogany
timber darkens with age. The texture is medium and
uniform. The price of this timber is in mid-range.

Walnut
 Walnut is a premium timber. It is a specialist hardwood. The
grain is straight but it can be irregular. Walnut timber is
really decorative. It carries a lot of design for the interior. It
has moderate natural luster. Walnut timber is moderately
durable. It is medium density.
SOFTWOOD

Cedar
 Cedar is a timber of high quality. It comes from several
different trees known as cedars. Where both strength and
appearance of the exposed wood beams are important,
cedar is the only savior and perfect fit for this. It is used in
for-landscape, park, garden structure. Its moderate strength
and softness make it unique. Cedar offers the advantage of
the natural advantage. Basically, it is a workable material.

Fir
 Fir is one of the world’s best-known timber species. It is a
premier building product for a wide range of applications. It
is a softwood species. Fir has a very straight grain. Fir has
become the standard woods of choice for timber framing.
Fir timber is used tin-housing, framing, flooring, lining
fascias, bargeboards, and pergolas.

Pine
 are considered a softwood tree, which means the wood is
softer than hardwood varieties. Pine trees grow around the
world, not just in the U.S. Pine has a great deal of stiffness
and resistance to shock, which makes it a solid choice for
many furniture pieces. Pine tends to be easier to work with
during the furniture building stage due to its softer nature.

Spruce
 The typical end-uses for spruce wood are for structural end
uses, indoors and outdoors, thus it is the most important
building and construction timber in Europe. It is also used
for decorative plywood, decorative veneer, domestic
flooring, factory flooring, general carpentry, interior
construction, joinery (external). Spruce wood from Central
and Eastern Europe shows exceptional resonance
qualities and is used for musical instruments like sound
boards of pianos and bellies of violins and guitars.
PARTS OF A TREE TRUNK
The Trunk of a tree is important for two reasons: First, it acts as a support rod,
giving the tree its shape and strength. Second, it acts as the central "plumbing system"
in a tree, forming a network of tubes that carries water and minerals up from the roots to
the leaves, and food (sugar) from the leaves down to the branches, trunk, and roots.
The easiest way to see how a tree works is to look at a cross section of the trunk.

The Trunk consists of five main parts: the bark, inner bark, cambium, sapwood,
and heartwood. From the outside of the tree working in, the first layer is the bark; this
is the protective outermost layer of the trunk. Under this is the inner bark which is made
of the phloem. The phloem is how the tree transports nutrients from the roots to the
shoots and vice versa. The next layer is the cambium, a very thin layer of
undifferentiated cells that divide to replenish the phloem cells on the outside and the
xylem cells to the inside. Directly to the inside of this is the sap wood, or the
living xylem cells. These cells transport the water through the tree. Finally at the center
of the tree is the heartwood. The heartwood is made up of old xylem cells that have
been filled with resins and minerals to keep other organisms from growing and infecting
the center of the tree.
CROSS SECTION OF A LOG
A cross section is the shape that you create
when you cut through an object.Logs are used
mainly for wall construction. Floor and roof
construction can be executed in the same way as
in other forms of timber construction

The three main sections of a log are an

outer layer of bark/dead bark, a circle of
sapwood and a core of heartwood.

Dead Bark

 Dead bark or outer bark is a layer of dead tissue which is a proctection for the trunk
and branches. It also helps to reduce water loss from the living cells of the tree.
Some trees shed thed their dead bark each year while on others dead bark is
reduced only by the weathering processes.

Live Bark

 Live bark is a layer of living tissue under the dead bark. Food materials produced by
the leaves are conducted through the live bark to the branches, trunk and roots of
the tree.

Cambium Layer

 The Cambium layer is the layer of thin cells, invisible to the naked eye positioned
inside the live bark. This layer of cells facilitates all growth in the thickness of the
tree trunk. The Cambium grows wood cells on the inside and live barks cells on the
outside.

Sapwood

 Sapwood is the new wood under the Cambium layer. It is often lighter in colour than
true wood or heart wood and it conducts water and mineral salts from the root
system of the tree to the leaves.

Heartwood

 Heart wood or truewood is made up of cells which are actually dead. It provides the
strength necessary to support the tree. Heartwood is formed by the blockage of the
channels which conduct food materials. Blockage occurs as stored food materials
are converted into tannis, resins and other related substances. Heartwood is much
more durable than sapwood.
The Pith

 The pith is at the centre of the tree and is a soft, pulpy zone which is usually about
one centimetre in diameter. The Pith is sometimes called the medulla, giving
its name medullary rays.

The Medullary rays are groups of wood cells radiating from the pith through the
truewood and sapwood zones of the tree. Food materials are conducted horizontally
in the trunk of the tree via the medullary rays which also act as food storage areas.

Growth Rings

 As trees age, they grow in height and width. You can tell the age of a tree by
counting these rings.
The annual rings of a tree are made each year when a new layer of wood is added
to the trunk and branches of the tree. New wood grows from the cambium
layer between the old wood and the bark.

The annual growth of a tree can be measured by the distance between the growth
rings shown in the illustration below. As the growth rate slows down in the winter
months, the new layers of wood cells (late wood) are smaller and packed more
closely together forming a ring which is darker in colour then the wood grain at a
faster rate earlier in the growing season (early wood).
TYPES OF LOG CUTS
Logs are cut into boards in a few different ways, which produce different characteristics and
amounts of waste.

Plain Sawn Lumber

Plain sawn lumber is the most common type of cut. The annular rings are generally 30
degrees or less to the face of the board; this is often referred to as tangential grain.

Plain sawn lumber yields the least waste and the widest boards.

A cathedral pattern is typically evident on the face of the board.

The diagram at left shows how a log can be cut so the entire contents is plain sawn. In this
case, the log is rotated 90 degrees after each cut, which helps maintain the annular ring pattern.
Alternatively, the log can be sawn continuously without rotating - one board after another all the way
through the log (inset graphic). This will actually produce some boards that are "quarter sawn" near
the center of the log (highlighted) since the annular rings will be 90 degrees to the face of the board.

Quarter Sawn Lumber

The annular rings of a quarter sawn board are about 60-90 degrees to the face of the board;
this is often referred to as radial grain. The goal is to keep the grain as close to perpendicular (90
degrees) to the face of the board as possible to maintain dimensional stability.
 Quarter sawn lumber yields more waste and narrower boards than plain sawn. Therefore,
quarter sawn lumber is more expensive

A narrow grain pattern is typically evident on the face of the board. Flecks (also known as
figure) are generally evident in quarter sawn red oak and white oak, but can also be seen in other
species.

The diagram at left shows two different methods of cutting quarter sawn boards, which are
highlighted. The remaining boards that aren't highlighted are considered rift sawn boards since the
annular rings are closer to 45 degrees.

Rift Sawn Lumber

The annular rings or a rift sawn board are about 30-60 degrees to the face of the board, but
45 degrees is the most optimum. Similar to quarter sawn lumber, rift sawn lumber is also referred to
as radial grain.

The diagram at left highlights the boards that are considered rift sawn. Since there are very
few boards that meet the requirement of 45-degree grain, rift sawn lumber is the most expensive cut.

A narrow and very straight grain pattern is visible on the face of the board. Rift sawn lumber
is usually used with oak to avoid the flecks that are common in the species.
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
Timber is a natural product and every natural product has some
imperfections. Timbers are not excluded from that. Most of the defects in timber
cause weakness or others sorts of difficulties. However some defects can be beneficial
for a specific type of work, for example, twisted wood is good for making a bowl out of
timber.

Five main types of defects in timber:

1. Defects due to Natural Forces

2. Defects due to Attack by Insects
3. Defects due to Fungi
4. Defects due to Defective Seasoning
5. Defects due to Defective Conversion

Defects in Timber due to Natural Forces

a. Knots: Knots are the most common defects caused due to natural forces. During
the growth of a tree, branches close to the ground or lower branches die. Bases
of those branches remain in the tree as the trees grow. These bases may create
imperfection known as knots.

Types of Knots: Knots are of two types.

i. Dead knots: The remains of damaged branches after drying out they
become loose and fall out.
ii. Live knots: They are sound and firm. If small, are not great of a defect.

Live knots are usually not a problem as they remain firmly attached to the timber.
But in dead knots, they are loosely attached and reduce strength. Knots
decrease the strength of the wood and thus lower its value for structural uses.
Knots cause serious defects when the load is perpendicular to the grains.
b. Twist: Twist in timber rotates the ends of the timber in opposite directions. The
main reason behind this defect is twisting of the trees by the strong wind.

c. Shakes: Shakes are timber defects that occur around the annual ring or growth
ring of a timber. In other words, cracks or splits in the woods are called shakes.

It may or may not be a structural problem depending upon depth and use. The
main problem is aesthetic. Where the appearance is important, shakes are
undesirable.

Types of shakes: Shakes can be classified into three main categories:-

i. Star Shakes: This type of shake starts propagating from the bark towards
the sapwood and sometimes even towards the heartwood along the lines
of medullary rays. Cracks are wider on the outer edge or bark and
narrower on the inside (usually sapwood, sometimes heartwood). The
main reasons behind star shakes are extreme heat or frosting during the
growth of the trees and rapid or uneven seasoning after cutting off the
timber. Extreme heat or frost causes temperature difference, which
causes shrinkage leading to the crack.
ii. Cup and/or Ring Shakes: Cup shakes follow the annual growth ring. It is
capable to separate the growth ring partially or completely. When the
crack separates the annual ring completely, it is called ring shakes. So, all
ring shakes are cup shakes, but all cup shakes are not a ring shape.
Excessive frost action is the main reason for this type of crack.
iii. Heart Shakes: Unlike star shakes, heart shakes starts propagating from
the pith to the sapwood along the lines of medullary rays. Shrinkage of the
interior part of the timber causes this crack.
 d. Rind Galls: The meaning of rind is bark and gall is abnormal growth. So
abnormal growth of the bark of the trees is called rind galls. Improper cutting of
branches causes this abnormal growth. Wood from this portion of the timber
lacks strength and desirable in structure.
e. Upsets: Upsets in various wood indicate that the tree was subjected to crushing
or compression. Improper felling of trees, heavy wind blowing during the young
age of the tree these are the main reasons behind this type of defect.

Defects of Timber due to Attack by Insects

Insects like beetles, termites or marine boars eat wood, make holes and weaken
the strength of the wood.
Beetles are small insects that make holes in almost all the sapwoods. The larvae make
tunnels through the sapwood in all directions and turn wood into powder.
Termites live in a colony. They are very fast in eating woods and making tunnels
through it. Only a few good kinds of wood can withstand the action of termites.
Marine boars are found in salt water. Usually, they make tunnels in wood to take refuge
or shelter. All kinds of wood or timber are vulnerable to this kind of insect.

Defects in Timber due to Attack by Fungi

a. Stain: When fungi feed only on sapwood, where the food materials are stored, it
causes a stain. Heartwood doesn’t contain these kinds of food materials and is
not affected by it. Stain action causes color but does not affect the strength of the
wood.
b. Decay: wood eating or wood destroying fungus is responsible for this type of
defect in wood. This type of fungi breaks down the cell structure. Both sapwood
and heartwood are affected by them. Considerable strength reduction occurs.

Defect in Timber due to Defective Seasoning

Faulty method of seasoning causes serious defects in woods. During seasoning of
timber, exterior or surface layer of the timber dries before the interior surface. So, stress
is developed due to the difference in shrinkage. In a perfect seasoning process, stress
is kept minimum by controlling the shrinkage. Some of the defects resulting from
defective seasoning are as follows:-

a. Bow: Curvature formed in direction of the length of the timber is called bow.
b. Cup: Curvature formed in the transverse direction of the timber is called a cup.
c. Check: Check is a kind of crack that separates fibers, but it doesn’t extend from
one end to another.
d. Split: Split is a special type of check that extends from one end to another.
 e. Honey Combing: Stress is developed in the heartwood during the drying
process or seasoning. For these stresses, cracks are created in the form of
honeycomb texture.

Defects of Timber due to Defective Conversion

a. Boxed Heart: This term is applied to the timber, which is sawn in a way that the
pith or the center heart falls entirely within the surface throughout its length.
b. Machine Burnt: Overheating is the main reason for this defect.
c. Machine Notches: defective holding and pulling causes this defect.
d. Miscut: erroneous cutting or sawing of wood causes this defect. Lack of
experience in sawing and carelessness is the main reason for erroneous cutting.
e. Imperfect Grain: Mismatch in grain alignment.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHILIPPINE WOOD and ITS
USES

 KAMAGONG
Also known as Philippine Ebony, kamagong is a
wood unique to the country. With a black heartwood (inner
region) and gray sapwood, this produces really dramatic,
dark timber hence the name. The grain is often grayish and
has strong, dark brown streaks. "It's good to use on accent
pieces lang, but [it] may not be good idea to make a whole
furniture piece out of it," says Benji.

Ideal for: Small, decorative pieces and combat tools like arnis sticks and eskrima

 MOLAVE
One of the hardest local woods, molave has a fine
texture that makes it smooth to the touch. It's available in
pale yellow to pinkish-brownish tone with a lighter sapwood
(outer region), and mostly straight grain. It has no distinct
odor.

Ideal for: window frames, shipbuilding, structural posts, railroad tracks, and other
outdoor applications

 NARRA
This very popular tropical wood has tones that range
from yellow to red. The grain (texture and alignment of
wood fiber) is often interlocked and wavy, which creates
interesting flame and ribbon figures when quartersawn or
flat sawn, which makes it a beautiful finishing material.
Texture can be anywhere from average-fine to average-
coarse. The wood itself is lustrous and has an attractive odor. Narra is classified as
endangered and vulnerable here, and in Malaysia.

Ideal for: furnishings, floor planks, wall panels

 TANGUILE
A moderately hard reddish wood, tanguile is one of
the seven local woods often referred to as Philippine
Mahogany. This abundant wood type boasts of fine ribbon
or straight grain. It's relatively soft and easy to work on,
but resilient enough for outdoor construction.

Ideal for: interior finishes, cabinets, boat building

 YAKAL
This resinous wood with yellow to golden-red tones
is another local mahogany type. A high-grade timber, yakal
can tolerate harsh hot and cold weathers.

Ideal for: furniture, surface finishes, small weapons, and

outdoor constructions
MEASURING LUMER
When you are measuring lumber, thickness is the dimension between the two
face surfaces; Width is the dimension between the two edges that are parallel to the
wood grain. Length is the dimension between two ends and is parallel to the wood grain
regardless of the width dimension.

It is common practice to state the thickness dimension in inches first; the width in
inches second; and the length in feet last. For example, if you were told to get a 2 by 4
by 6, you would know to get a board 2 inches thick by 4 inches wide by 6 feet long.

The standard measure for lumber is a board foot. This is abbreviated as bf or

bd ft. A board foot is simply one-twelfth of a cubic foot. A board measuring 1 inch thick,
12 inches wide, and 12 inches long contains 1 bd ft.

You may use several formulas to determine bd ft. The one most commonly used
is the inches, inches, feet method. To use it, multiply the thickness (T) in inches by the
width (W) in inches by the length (L) in feet. Next, divide the product by 12. Write the
formula as follows:

bd ft = T(in.) × W(in.) × L(ft.) / 12

Suppose you want to determine the bd ft contained in a piece of wood measuring

1 inch thick by 8 inches wide by 9 feet long. Using the formula, you would work it like
this:

bd ft = T(in.) × W(in.) × L(ft.) / 12

bd ft = 1(in) × 8(in.) × 9(ft.) / 12

bd ft = 6

Therefore, a board measuring 1 inch by 8 inches by 9 feet will contain 6 bd ft

 Republic of the Philippines

TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

Ayala Blvd, Ermita, Manila, 1000 Metro Manila

College of Engineering

Civil Engineering Department

Engineering Shopwork 1

Assignment No. 2

WOOD

Submitted By:

Jessan H. Balasangay

BSCE-1F

Submitted to:

Engr. Arnolfo G. Arcibal