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Learning Theories: An Overview

Schema Theory
 Description of Theory
 Contributors to Theory
 Importance to ISD

Description of Theory

What is Schema Theory?

Anderson (1984b) defines schema as an abstract structure of information that serves two functions: summarizing
information about particular cases and representing relationships among concepts. Additionally, each schema
consists of a set of expectations, and comprehension does not occur unless those expectations are met. Without a
schema, Anderson (1984b) contends that learning can be slow and uncertain. Proponents of schema theory suggest
that all knowledge is packaged into units (Anderson, 1984a). In addition to being packaged into units, schemata are
organized knowledge as opposed to being simply lists of information (Schallert, 1982). They represent all the
knowledge that is associated with a particular concept and not just essential definitional information. Schemata
may be formed and used without conscious awareness. Schemata may exist for both events and objects, and they
represent the generalized concepts underlying those events, objects, and actions -- in other words, te stereotypes of
those concepts (Rumelhart & Ortony, 1977). In any of these cases, the schema is personally relevant. It represents
the individual's stereotype of the object or event, so that the experience or knowledge that particular individual does
not have will not be represented in the schema for an event. Therefore, although schema may be shared among
humans (perhaps by persons in a certain culture or even by persons across cultures), they also reflect the unique
experiences of the individual. Another person may have a separate experience that would result in the incorporation
of a distinct knowledge into their schema. See example

Components of schema:

Rumelhart and Ortony (1977) discuss three components of schema theory:

1. Schemata have variables. Variables can be associated with or bound by different aspects of our environment
on different occassions. Contextual or situational factors may alter what part of the schema is retrived, but
relationships internal to the specific schema will remain constant. See example
2. Schemata can be hierarchly embedded within each other. See example
3. Scemata facilitate in making inferences. See example

Assumptions of schema theory:

Anderson, Reynolds, Schallert, and Goetz (1977) list several assumptions of schema theory:

1. Schemata can be reorganized as incoming data reveals a need to restructure the concept
2. Schemata may change moment to moment as information is received
o Rumelhart (1980) proposes three processes for modification of schemata
  Accretion refers to information that is instatiated in the context of an existing schema and
does not alter that schema
 Tuning refers to the situation in which new information or experience cannot be fully
accommodated in the existing schema, as a result the schema must expand to become more
consistent with the new experience
 Restructuring refers to the situation in which new information cannot be accomodated
through tuning; thus, a new schema must be created.
 See example

Goal of Theory:

As in most cognitive learning theories, the goal of the theory is help the learner make the connections, or activate
prior knowledge, or acquire necessary knowledge, to make appropriate connections.

Theory of learning:

Schema theory indicates that the activation of background knowledge prior to and during instruction of new
information is paramount. Stripped to its most basic assumptions, schema theory proposes that the knowledge a
person possesses, their existing knowledge repertoire, directly influences the content, the form, and the connections
they make about new knowledge (Schallert, 1982).

How does schema theory promote knowledge acquisition?

Knowledge acquisition begins with the puruit of information. In this quest, the individual utilizes previously
produced descriptive knowledge on how to best organize, classify, and understand information. The act of
searching for and acquiring new information is connected to the schemata that the individual possesses. Searching
for information leads to the gathering of information. Ultimately, the information must be integrated into the
existing knowledge structure.

Role of memory

For the schema theorist, memory plays a prominent role. Learning results when information is stored in long term
memory in an organized, meaningful way. Forgetting is the inability to retrieve information because of memory
loss, inference, missing cues, inadequate cues, etc.

How does Schema theory promote problem solving, transfer

 When first presented with a problem, the individual will use his/her schemata to understand and encode the
problem and these actions will ultimately lead to a solution (Rumelhart, 1980).
 Schemata usually embody relationships among several domains. People infer information that seems
plausible given the scenario; thus, schemata are clusters of information that are used to generate solutions
 Knowledge is domain specific - in problem solving, one needs only to access relevant knowledge. An
individual can, however, transfer schemata across domains or generalize schemata to a variety of domains
(Hatano, 1996).
 According to Anderson (1984a), schemata are active, self-activating, and self-revising. These characteristics
mean that schemata play a critical role in cognitive processing. Schemata help us focus our attention, to
 comprehend, to interpret, to remember, to make inferences, to set goals and expectations, to reason, and to
problem solve.
 Schema theory considers the ways in which knowledge is mediated within particular settings. It considers
the representations (schemata) that the learner brings to the scenario. In this way, the learner is an active
problem sovler and a constructor of his or her own knowledge (Hutchinson & Huberman, 1993).
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Contributors to Theory

Foundations for theory rely on:

 Bartlett
 Piaget
 Ausubel

Researchers:

 Anderson
 Rumelhart and Ortony
 Research results on strengths and weaknesses of the theory
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Importance to ISD

Confirming evidence regarding schema theory suggests many instructional implications. Anderson (1984a) points
out that it cannot be assumed that children from all cultures will bring the same prior knowledge and schema to the
reading task, for instance. Although there are definite gaps in the way that schema theory has been presented, the
theory itself still has redeeming qualities for instructional uses. Teachers who can assess and activate past
experiences of students and link this prior knowledge to what is currently being taught should make it easier for
students to understand and recall information.

What is the role of the learner?

The learner is active; the learner constructs information maps/mental models.

What is the role of the instructor?

The instructor is active also. In schema theory, as well as other cognitivist approaches, the instructor will provide
activiation and connection to prior knowledge (or at least the prompts). The instructor is also expected to assist the
learner in organizing information so that it can be readily assimilated in long-term memory.
What is the role of the instructional designer?

Schema theory indicates that the activation of background knowledge prior to and during instruction of new
information is paramount. Therefore, instructors and instructional designers should provide some method of
determining the learners' current schemat or knowledge before instruction of materials takes place (learner
analysis). One important implication of schema theory is that students may possess incorrect or superficial
schemata which could lead them to organize information incorrectly, to build incorrect relationships, or, if their
background knowledge is extremely limited, to be unable to comprehend new material.

It is necessary in an effective learning environment for instructional designers to provide ample time and space for
instructors or others to attend to student answers and remarks to verify that information is being organized
effectively. If students fail in the task of organizing their knowledge base and creating meaningful relationships,
they will be unable to perform in successive learning environments.

Students should be encouraged to pay attention to the cues that are available to them when encountering new
information (e.g., reading headings and titles, paying attention to visual and aural stimuli, etc.).

What basic principles are relevant to instructional design?

 Emphasis on the active involvement of the learner in the learning process (learner control, metacognitive
training - i.e., planning and monitoring)
 Use of hierarchial analyses to identify and illustrate prerequisite relationships (cognitive task analysis
procedures)
 Emphasis on structuring, organizing, and sequencing information to facilitate optimal processing (use of
cognitive strategies such as outlining, summarizing, synthesizers, advance organizers, etc.)
 Creation of learning environments that allow and encourage students to make connections with previously
learned material (recall or prerequisite skills, use of relevant examples, analogies)

From Ertmer and Newby, 1993

How should instruction be structured to facilitate learning?

 Anderson (1984a) offers five techniques for manipulating learers' schema:

1. Assign them different perspectives from which to approach the new material
2. Instruction should help students activate relevant knowledge prior to immersion in the new material.
Ask questions that prompt learners to relate what they know from their own experiences
3. Make sure students have the prerequisite knowledge. Direct instruction may be necessary to
accomplish this
4. Provide lesson activities that will lead learners to meaningfully integrate what they already know
with what has been recently presented. Asking students to predict what will happen is one method
5. Instruction should employ devices that will highlight the structure of the material. Advanced
organizers (see Ausubel) have been proven successful.

Price and Driscoll (1996) believe that new schemata do not easily arise spontaneously, nor are they easily
transferred. They recommend the following instructional strategies for helping students transfer problem-solving
techniques:

1. Instruction should focus more on schema-building strategies as foundational to problem-solving. Make

problem scenarios more realistic and familiar
2. Provide the learner with explained examples or worksheets
3. Learners must have multiple problem-solving experiences

Are there any basic prescriptions/or instructional/learning strategies?

 Use explanations, demonstrations, examples (or non examples)

 Provide cues
 Provide for predition, elaboration
 Feedback is essential
 Provide places, areas, ways for students to structure, organize and sequence information (outlining,
mnemonics, advanced organizers, chunking, metaphors, synthesizers, analogies, summaries, concept
mapping, elaborations, links to prior knowledge)

What ID models are related to the theory?

 Gagne's Conditions of Learning and Nine Events of Instruction

 Merrill's Component Display Theory, and, more recently, Instructional Transaction Theory
 Reigeluth's Elaboration Theory
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