Cognitive Theories Summary

In

Partial Fulfillment

Of

The Requirements of

[EDID6501 Learning Theory and Instructional Theory - Trimester 1 - (2022)]

Student: Tracy Charles

University of the West Indies Open Campus

Course Coordinator – Dr. J. Deanne Ford

[07/11/2022]
2

Cognitive Theories Summary

The cognitive school views (1)

learning as an active
process “involving the acquisition or
reorganization of
the cognitive structures through which
humans process
and store information” and (2) the
learner as an active
participant in the process of
knowledge acquisition and
integration (Good and Brophy 1990,
187; Merriam and
Caffarella 1999, 254; Simon 2001,
210). This theory
describes knowledge acquisition as a
mental activity in-
3

volving internal coding and

structuring by the learner
(Derry 1996; Spiro et al. 1992) and
suggests that learn-
ing happens best under conditions that
are aligned with
human cognitive architecture (Sobel
2001). Cognitive
psychologists place more emphasis on
what learners
know and how they come to acquire it
than what they
do. For this reason, the cognitive
approach focuses on
making knowledge meaningful and
helping learners or-
ganize and relate new information to
prior knowledge
4

in memory. Instruction should be

based on a student’s
existing mental structures or schema
to be effective
(Ertmer and Newby 1993
The cognitive school views learning as an active process “involving the acquisition or

reorganization of the cognitive structures through which humans process and store information”

and the learner as an active participant in the process of knowledge acquisition and integration

(Good & Brophy 1990, Merriam & Caffarella 1999; Simon 2001). The cognitive theory

describes knowledge acquisition as a mental activity involving internal coding and structures by

the learner (Derry 1996; Spiro et al. 1992) and suggests that learning happens best under

conditions that aligned with human cognitive architecture (Sobel 2001). Cognitive psychologist

place more emphasis on what learners know and how they come to acquire it than on what they

do. For this reason, the cognitive approach focuses on making knowledge meaningful and

helping learners organize and relate new information to prior knowledge in memory. Instructions

are based on a student’s existing mental structures or schema to be effective (Ertmer & Newby

1993). Three cognitive theories, cognitive information processing, meaningful learning, schema

theory, and situated cognition theory, are examined based on how learning occurs, the

similarities and differences, their use in instruction, and the descriptive strategy of each.

According to the cognitive information processing (CIP) view, the human learner is conceived to

be a processor of information, in much the same way as a computer (Mc Leod 2008). Acquiring

and processing knowledge is a mental process, through which the learner stores, orders,
5

organizes, transforms, retrieves, recovers, and evaluates knowledge (Belanger 2011). In

information processing, memory plays a central role. Information is registered in short-term

memory, processed, transferred, and encoded into long-term memory. In addition, the CIP has

three phases of the memory process: encoding, storage, and retrieval. The other two use the same

process, even if the meaning is reinforced by real-world experiences and situations. (Driscoll,

2013). Schunk (1996) posits that the learner is an active seeker and processor of information,

however, in instruction; the instructor plays an active role in helping students focus their

attention and select important information as well as activate prior knowledge, which facilitates

encoding. In addition, effective strategies must be used to transfer information into long-term

memory. Strategies such as chunking, rehearsal, mnemonics, and serial positioning are effective.

Consequently, David Ausubel’s meaningful learning theory postulates that new information is

meaningful when it relates to prior knowledge (Driscoll, 2005). In meaningful learning, there is a

“hierarchal cognitive structure” and “anchoring ideas.” These lead to the assimilation and

retention of new knowledge. The most crucial element in meaningful learning is how new

information is integrated into the previous knowledge structure. Schema theory on the other

hand, according to Stein and Trabasso (1982), is prior knowledge or mental models composed of

generic knowledge, and experiences gained through individuals, groups, or cultures which can be

intentional or not. There are “packets of knowledge similar to theories and procedures” and

“mental models” that guide and govern performance. For meaningful learning to be effective in

instruction, the learner has to have an existing cognitive structure to build on. Instructors can use

advanced organizers that are used to activate prior knowledge, for example, through concept

mapping. Instructors may ask questions, give think-aloud activities, and use cues through
6

students’ responses, and errors to determine what students’ current schemata might be and how

they are organizing information.

Furthermore, situated cognition studies how learning takes place when the learner is doing

something in both the real and virtual world, and therefore learning occurs in a situated activity

that has social-cultural and physical contexts. (Ataizi 2012) This theory supports the idea that

learning takes place when an individual is doing something ‘learning in progress.’ The

knowledge obtained cannot be separated from the context or situation in which the acquisition

was done. This means that learning is connected to a culture, place, activity, or social situation.

In other words, learning does not happen in isolation from other people or our environment. We

learn in and from specific places and interactions. Lave and Wenger (1990) suggest that situated

learning occurs in dynamic communities that involve teachers, learners, experts in business, and

the community where knowledge is shared in an authentic context. This allows learners to use

cognitive tools in authentic domains both outside and inside the school. The learner, having

acquired and mastered the knowledge, skills, or abilities, will eventually become an expert and

thus; pass on knowledge to new learners.

Theories are similar in that they attempt to explain how humans behave, gaining a better

understanding of the mental processes of learners. All cognitive learning theories address the role

of learning and memory. Both the meaningful learning and schema theory and situated cognition

focus on teacher-centered approaches to instruction. They also require the learner to have

existing knowledge in the quest for the instruction to be effective. The role of memory in the

situated cognition theory is to assist learners to recall familiar conditions while allowing them to

engage in activities and relations that can make new information meaningful. While in

meaningful learning and schema theory, recalling and organizing prior knowledge provides a
7

framework for a better understanding of the concepts. Further, in cognitive information

processing, transfers occur when learners acquire new information through experiences, enabling

the learner to retrieve previous information that assists the learner in organizing and

understanding new concepts.

In contrast, situated cognition theory assumes that learning involves social participation, such

that cognition takes place within the world and not in the minds constructed as somehow

separate from or outside the world. The knowledge of the individual is the outcome of an

individual learning context and culture. Learning is social and not isolated, as people learn while

interacting with each other through shared activities and through language, as they discuss, share

knowledge, and problem-solving during these tasks. The theory focuses on the social aspect of

the learning process while the meaningful learning and schema theory places no emphasis on the

social aspect of learners. Meaningful learning and schema occur when previous knowledge

combines and links to current learning. On the other hand, cognitive information processing

focuses primarily on the process by which information received by the brain through the various

sensory organs is processed and eventually stored (whether for immediate, short-term, or long-

term use) for retrieval. In addition, cognitive information processing covers all the mechanisms

through which the learning processes can occur in the individual. Hence, its focus is internal as it

looks at how the brain receives, stores encodes, and eventually retrieves information.

Overall, meaningful learning links new information to previous knowledge. Driscoll (2005)

implies that when previous knowledge is activated meaning is achieved. Situated cognition
8

provides the most descriptive strategy for human learning. This theory defines an individual

knowledge based on the learning that is occurring in their environment or culture. An

individual’s knowledge is shaped by the various activities that they are exposed to as well as the

context and culture in which learning occurs. This theory has helped researchers understand

more widely how people learn because it has focused on what people learn in their everyday

lives, which are authentic contexts for a variety of skills. In addition, it helps educators

understand how to capitalize on knowledge and skills that their students may already possess in

order to help them learn new content and skills.

9

References

Ausubel, D. P. (1963). The psychology of meaningful verbal learning. Grune and Stratton: New

York.

Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning.

Educational researcher, 18(1), 32-42

Derry, S. 1996. Cognitive schema theory in the constructivist debate. Educational Psychologist

3: 163–74

Driscoll, M., (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction. The USA. Pearson Education Inc.

Ertmer, P. A., and T. J. Newby. 1993. Behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism; comparing

critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly 6:

50–66.

Sobel, C. P. 2001. The cognitive sciences: An interdisciplinary approach. Mountain View, CA:

Mayfield
10

Good, T. L., and J. E. Brophy. 1990. Educational psychology: A realistic approach, 4th ed.

White Plains, NY: Longman.

Merriam, S. B., and R. S. Caffarella. 1999. Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide, 2nd

ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass