Elasticity

The property of a material to attain its original size and/or shape after the deforming force is
removed. But there is a limit to the magnitude of the deforming force, after the removal of
which, the material can attain the original size/shape. This is called the elastic limit.
The deforming force per unit area is called stress while the ratio of change in size/shape to
original size/shape is called strain. Within elastic limits, stress is directly proportional to strain,
also known as Hooke’s law. The constant of proportionality is called the modulus of elasticity.
The deforming force can either cause a change in length, volume and/or shape. Accordingly,
we have three kinds of stresses and hence corresponding strains and moduli of elasticity.
If the applied stress results in a change of length, it is called longitudinal stress. The ratio of
change in length to original length is called longitudinal strain. The ratio of longitudinal stress
to longitudinal strain is called Young’s modulus Y.

Longitudinal stress can be further classified into two types. When a wire or a rod is stretched
at the two ends by equal and opposite forces, the stress is called tensile stress. When a rod is
pushed at the two ends by equal and opposite forces, it will be under compression and hence is
called compressive stress. If the applied stress results in change of volume, it is called volume
stress. The ratio of change in volume to original volume is called volume strain. The ratio of
volume stress to volume strain is called bulk modulus K.

Longitudinal and volume stresses act normal to the surface. Forces applied parallel to the
surface result in tangential stress also called shear stress. Shear stresses change the shape of the
body. Shear strain is the angle through which a face originally perpendicular to the fixed face
is turned. It is also the ratio of the displacement of a layer to its distance from the fixed layer.
The ratio of shear stress to shear strain is called modulus of rigidity η.
ℎ
=
ℎ
It is observed that a longitudinal strain along one direction results in a lateral strain along the
perpendicular direction(s). For most materials, this lateral strain is negative if the longitudinal
strain is positive and vice versa. The negative of the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain
in the direction of stretching force is constant for the material of the body called Poisson’s ratio
σ.
 =−

Hence the Poisson’s ratio is positive for most materials. Some materials known as auxetic
materials display a negative Poisson’s ratio. In such materials, the lateral strain is positive if
the longitudinal strain is positive.
Equivalence of shear strain to compression and extension strains
D D’ C C’

N’ N

A B

Consider a cube whose one face ABCD is as shown in the figure. A shear stress when applied
to it twists the face by an angle . The position of the corners now shift from C to C’ and from
D to D’. Let N be the normal to AC’ and N’ the normal to BD.
The extension strain is given by
− + ′−
. .= =

If is very small, ≈ and ≈ ′ and hence ∠ ′ ≈ 45°.

′ ′ ′
∴ . .= = = ∵ = √2
√2 2
From ∆ ′, we have

tan ≈ =

∴ . .=
2
Similarly it can be shown that the compression strain is also .

Thus shear strain is equivalent to sum of compression and extension strains.

Relation between Young’s modulus, modulus of rigidity and Poisson’s ratio
 D D’ C C’

N’ N

A B

Consider a cube whose one face ABCD is as shown in the figure. A shear stress when applied
to it twists the face by an angle . The position of the corners now shift from C to C’ and from
D to D’. Let N be the normal to AC’ and N’ the normal to BD.
The extension strain is given by
− + ′−
. .= =

If is very small, ≈ and ≈ ′ and hence ∠ ′ ≈ 45°.

′ ′ ′
∴ . .= = = ∵ = √2
√2 2

From ∆ ′, we have

tan ≈ =

∴ . .=
2

If T is the stress acting on the cube, η the modulus of rigidity, Y the Young’s modulus and σ
the Poisson’s ratio then the shear strain θ is given by

∴ . .=
2
The net extension strain along AC is the sum of the longitudinal strain due to the extension
stress T along AC and the lateral strain produced along AC by the compression stress along
BD. The longitudinal strain along AC is given by T/Y. Similarly the longitudinal strain along
BD is also T/Y. Since Poisson’s ratio is given by
 =−

=− =−

Since it is compression along BD, the strain will be negative.

∴ . .= + = (1 + )

From the above two relations, we get

= (1 + )
2
∴ = 2 (1 + )
Relation between Young’s modulus, bulk modulus and Poisson’s ratio

Consider a cube of side L acted upon by a volume stress T as shown in the figure. Since bulk
modulus K is the ratio of volume stress to volume strain, the expression for volume strain can
be written as follows

∆
= ∆ =

If Tx, Ty and Tz are the stresses along X, Y and Z axes, the longitudinal strain ex along X-axis
is the sum of the extension strain due to Tx given by Tx/Y and the lateral strains (compression)
due to extension along Y and Z axes each given by -σ Tx/Y.
∆
= = − − ∆ = − −

Similarly we get the expressions for ey and ez.

∆
= = − − ∆ = − −

∆
= = − − ∆ = − −
If the stress is isotropic in all directions, we have Tx = Ty = Tz = T. The above relations for Δx,
Δy and Δz then reduce to

∆ =∆ =∆ = (1 − 2 )

The change in volume ΔV can be written as

∆ =( +∆ ) − = + (1 − 2 ) −

From the two relations above for ΔV, we get

= + (1 − 2 ) −

1 1−2 1−2 1−2

∴ =3 +3 +

Since σ has values between -1 and 0.5 and Y is of the order of 108 or greater, the higher order
terms can be neglected.
∴ = 3 (1 − 2 )
Relation between Young’s modulus, bulk modulus and modulus of rigidity
= 2 (1 + )

∴ = −1
2
= 3 (1 − 2 )

∴ =3 1−2 −1
2

∴ =3 1− +2

3
∴ =3 3− = (3 − )

1 3
∴ = (3 − )

1 9 3
∴ = −

9 1 3
= +

Couple per unit twist of a cylinder

The twisting of a structural member about its longitudinal axis by two equal and opposite
torques is expressed through a certain angle. The stress in this case is neither tensile nor
compressive, but is shearing or shear stress. The strain produced is measured by an angle in
radians.

Consider a cylindrical rod of length l and radius r with its upper end fixed. Let a twisting couple
be applied to the lower end of the rod in a plane perpendicular to its length twisting the rod
through an angle θ (radians). While the rod is twisted, restoring couple acts in the opposite
direction and in the position of equilibrium, the twisting couple is equal and opposite to the
restoring couple. To calculate this couple, let us consider the solid cylinder to be made up of a
larger number of concentric thin walled cylinders. Let us consider one such hollow cylinder of
radius x, and radial thickness dx. When the rod is twisted through an angle θ, the angle through
which the rim of the cylinder is sheared is ϕ.
From the figure above, it is seen that BB’ = xθ. BB’ = lϕ as well.

∴ =
From this it is clear that as x varies, ϕ varies as well. ϕ has the maximum value when x is the
greatest. i.e., the strain is maximum on the outermost part of the cylinder and minimum on the
innermost. Thus the shearing stress is not uniform throughout the material. If η is the modulus
of rigidity and shear stress is T then
=

∴ = =
The cross-sectional area of the hollow cylinder is 2πxdx. The total shearing force F acting on
this area is

= = . = 2
2
∴ =
The moment of this force dτ about the axis 00’ is given by
 2
= . =
The total twisting couple τ acting on the rod is obtained by integrating the above expression
between limits x = 0 and x = r.
2 2
∴τ= =

2
∴τ=
4
∴τ=
2
The couple per unit twist C is given by
τ
= =
2
It is also known as the torsional rigidity of the rod.
For a cylindrical tube or pipe of inner radius r and outer radius R, the limits of integration
would between x = r and x = R. The total twisting couple τ acting on the tube is thus
2 2
∴τ= =

2 ( − )
∴τ= − =
4 4 2
The couple per unit twist C is given by
τ ( − )
= =
2