General Chemistry

Contact : Dr. Joëlle BASSIL

PhD in Chemistry and physical chemistry

of materials
Université de Montpellier 2

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

1
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 Atoms
- -

++ +
- + + + -
+ +
-

- -
Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Atomic structure

Ernest Rutherford

1910

Rutherford’s new evidence allowed him to propose a

more detailed model with a central nucleus.

He suggested that the positive charge was all in a

central nucleus. With this holding the electrons in
place by electrical attraction

However, this was not the end of the

story.
Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Atomic structure
Rutherford’s Model of the Atom
• The smallest unit of an
element.
• Consists of a central
nucleus surrounded by
one or more electrons.
-
• Made up of:
- + – protons +

+ + - – neutrons

+ – electrons
• The solar system is
-

-
commonly used as an
analogy to describe the
structure of an atom

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Atomic structure

WHAT IS THE NUCLEUS?

o The central part of an atom.

o Composed of protons and neutrons.
o Contains most of an atom's mass.

WHAT IS A PROTON?
o Positively charged particle.

o Found within an atomic nucleus.

WHAT IS A NEUTRON?

o Uncharged particle.

o Found within an atomic nucleus.

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Atomic structure

WHAT IS AN ELECTRON?

o Negatively charged particle.

o Located in shells that surround an atom's

nucleus.

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Atomic structure

Subatomic Particles (nucléons)

Mass Charge Charge

Particle
(g) (Coulombs) (units)

Electron (e-) 9.1 x 10-28 -1.6 x 10-19 -1

-24 -19
Proton (p) 1.67 x 10 +1.6 x 10 +1

Neutron (n) 1.67 x 10-24 0 0

mass p Fall
= 2017
mass n = 1840 x mass e -
– 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Atomic structure

Nucléide

ATOMIC NUMBER (Z) = number of protons in nucleus

MASS NUMBER (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Examples: 612C 17
35Cl

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Atomic structure

ISOTOPS
Atoms that have the same number of protons, but have different numbers of neutrons
Examples
-

-
+ + +

-
Hydrogen (Protium) Hydrogen (Deuterium) Hydrogen (Tritium)

Allotropes
An element may adopt several different forms, called allotropic forms.
Example

8 allotropes of Carbon: diamond, graphite, lonsdaleite, Buckyball, C540, C70, Amorphous

carbon, Buckytube
Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Atomic structure

The molar mass

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Atomic structure

The molar mass

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Atomic structure

The molar mass

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Atomic structure

The molar mass

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Atomic structure

The molar mass

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Atomic structure

The molar mass

• is the mass of one mole of an element or compound.
• is the atomic mass expressed in grams.

Molar Mass in g = Atomic Mass in u.m.a (unite de masse atomique)

Ex:

Atomic mass of 1 atom 14N = 14 u.m.a

Molar mass of 1 mole of 14N = 14 g

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Atomic structure

Isotopic atomic molar mass

M (16O) = 15,99491 g.mol-1
M (18O) = 17,99915 g.mol-1

Average atomic mass

τ1, τ2, … τn : % (abundance of the various isotopes of the element)

M1, M2, … Mn : their respective atomic masses

Example : the natural chlorine contains 75% of the 35Cl isotope and 25% of the 37Cl isotope.

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Atomic structure

1913 Niels Bohr

Bohr refined Rutherford's idea by

adding that the electrons were in orbits.
Rather like planets orbiting the sun.
With each orbit only able to contain a
set number of electrons.

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Atomic structure
Bohr’s Atom
Bohr’s Atom

electrons in orbits
electrons in orbits

nucleus

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Atomic structure
Bohr’s Model of the Atom
 Studied the light produced when atoms were excited by heat or electricity
Rutherford's model couldn't explain why unique colours were obtained by atoms of
different elements
 Bohr proposed that electrons are in orbits & when excited jump to a higher orbit. When
they fall back to the original they give off light.
 Electrons orbit the nucleus like planets orbit the sun
 Each orbit can hold a specific maximum number of electrons
 The electron can be located only in certain orbits that are precise or permitted in such a
way that its energy remains constant.

n = 1,2,3,….
r: radius of the orbit
λ : wave length

 When electron absorbs or emits energy, it changes orbit or energy level.

De Broglie relation h: Planck s constant =6,62.10-34 J.s
wavelike m: Mass of electron
behavior of the v: velocity of electron
electron λ : wave length
 I- Atomic structure
Absorption and Emission

Absorption Emission

Absorption: A transition from a lower level to a higher level with transfer of

energy from the radiation field to an absorber, atom, molecule, or solid.

Emission: A transition from a higher level to a lower level with transfer of energy
from the emitter to the radiation field.

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Atomic structure

Electronic transitions

The passage of an e- from an orbit defined by ni to an orbit defined by nf is done by an

exchange of a quantum of energy:

ν: frequency of the radiation

λ: wavelength
c: speedof light c= 3.108 m.s-1
h: constante de Planck; h = 6,626.10-34 J.s

1 ev = 1.602.10-19 J Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Atomic structure

• Each orbit was given a number, called the quantum

number.

• Bohr orbits are like steps of a ladder, each at a specific

distance from the nucleus and each at a specific energy.

For an atom:

r is the distance which separates the electron from the nucleus

r = a0n2 a0 = 0.529 A

E is the total energy of the electron

E = EH/n2 EH = - 13.54 ev
n = 1 groundstate
Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL n > 1 excited state
 I- Atomic structure

For a hydrogen electron the energy change is

given by
ΔE  E f  Ei
 1 1 
ΔE  RH  2  2 
 ni nf 
RH = 2.179 × 10-18 J, Rydberg constant

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 II- Atom in quantum mechanics

II-1 Quantum numbers

According to quantum mechanics, each electron is described by

four quantum numbers:

1. Principal quantum number (n)

2. Angular momentum quantum number (l)
3. Magnetic quantum number (ml)
4. Spin quantum number (ms)

The first three define the wave function for a particular electron.
The fourth quantum number refers to the magnetic property of
electrons.

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 II- Atom in quantum mechanics

II-1 Quantum numbers

 Principal Quantum Number, n
•This quantum number is the one on which the energy of an electron
in an atom primarily depends. The smaller the value of n, the lower
the energy and the smaller the orbital.

•The principal quantum number can have any positive value: 1, 2, 3, . .

•Orbitals with the same value for n are said to be in the same shell.

•Shells are sometimes designated by uppercase letters:

Letter K L M N
n 1 2 3 4 ...
e- 2 8 18 32
 II- Atom in quantum mechanics

II-1 Quantum numbers

 Angular Momentum Quantum Number, l
•This quantum number distinguishes orbitals of a given n (shell) having
different shapes.

•It can have values from 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . to a maximum of (n – 1).

•For a given n, there will be n different values of l, or n types of subshells.

•Orbitals with the same values for n and l are said to be in the same shell and
subshell.

•Subshells are sometimes designated by lowercase letters

n 1 2 3 4
l 0 0,1 0,1,2 0,1,2,3 ...
Letter s sp spd spdf
Not every subshell type exists in every shell. The minimum value of n for each
type of subshell is shown above.
 II- Atom in quantum mechanics

II-1 Quantum numbers

 Magnetic Quantum Number, ml
•This quantum number distinguishes orbitals of a given n and l—that
is, of a given energy and shape but having different orientations.

•The magnetic quantum number depends on the value of l and can

have any integer value from –l to 0 to +l. Each different value
represents a different orbital. For a given subshell, there will be (2l + 1)
values and therefore (2l + 1) orbitals.

l= 0 → ml = 0 →1 orientation → orbital s →

l= 1 → ml = -1, 0, 1 → 3 orientations → 3 orbitals p →

l= 2 → ml =-2, -1, 0, 1, 2 → 5 orientations → 5 orbitals d →

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 II- Atom in quantum mechanics

II-1 Quantum numbers

 Spin Quantum Number, ms
•This quantum number refers to the two possible orientations of
the spin axis of an electron.

•It may have a value of either +1/2 (↑) or -1/2 (↓)

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 II- Atom in quantum mechanics

II-1 Quantum numbers

•Which of the following are permissible sets of quantum numbers?

a) n = 4, l = 4, ml = 0, ms = ½
b) n = 3, l = 2, ml = 1, ms = -½
c) n = 2, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = ³/²
d) n = 5, l = 3, ml = -3, ms = ½

(a) Not permitted. When n = 4, the maximum value of l is 3.

(b) Permitted.
(c) Not permitted; ms can only be +½ or –½.
(d) Permitted.
Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 II- Atom in quantum mechanics

II-1 Quantum numbers

n shell 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
l subshell 0, 1, 2, ... n - 1
ml orbital - l ... 0 ... +l
ms electron spin +1/2 and - 1/2

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 II- Atom in quantum mechanics

II-1 Quantum numbers

What is the maximum shell population of n = 5?
ms = ½
½ l = 0(s) ml = 0 ms = - ½
ms = ½
ms = - ½
ml = 1 ms = ½
l = 1(p) ml = 0 ms = - ½
ml = -1 ms = ½
n=5 ms = - ½
l = 2(d)

l = 3(f)

l = 4(g)
 II- Atom in quantum mechanics

II-2 Hydrogen’s atomic orbitals

s sublevel:

+
+

+
 II- Atom in quantum mechanics

II-2 Hydrogen’s atomic orbitals

p sublevel:

+ +
- -

-
 II- Atom in quantum mechanics

II-2 Hydrogen’s atomic orbitals

d sublevel:

- + +
- -
- +
+
+
-

+ -
+ -
- +
-
+
 III- Electron Configuration

• Electron configurations tells us in which orbitals the

electrons for an element are located.
• Three rules:
Stability principle
– Electrons fill orbitals starting with lowest n and moving
upwards
Pauli exclusion principle
– No two electrons can fill one orbital with the same spin
Hund’s rule
– For degenerate orbitals, electrons fill each orbital singly
before any orbital gets a second electron.

――― ―――
Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 III- Electron Configuration

Klechkowski rule
Order in which subshells are filled with electrons
1s

2s 2p

3s 3p 3d

4s 4p 4d 4f

5s 5p 5d 5f

6s 6p 6d

7s 2 2 6 2 6 2 10
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d …
6 2 10

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f

5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model

4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale

3s 3p
N

2s 2p

1s

Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS

H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
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 Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Hydrogen

5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model

4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale

3s 3p
N

2s 2p

1s

Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
H = 1s1
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
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 Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Helium

5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model

4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale

3s 3p
N

2s 2p

1s

Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
He = 1s2
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
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 Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Lithium

5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model

4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale

3s 3p
N

2s 2p

1s

Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
Li = 1s22s1
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
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 Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Carbon

5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model

4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale

3s 3p
N

2s 2p

1s

Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
C = 1s22s22p2
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
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 Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Nitrogen

5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model

4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale

3s 3p
N

Hund’s Rule “maximum

number of unpaired
orbitals”.
2s 2p

1s

Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
N = 1s22s22p3
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
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 Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Fluorine

5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model

4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale

3s 3p
N

2s 2p

1s

Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
F = 1s22s22p5
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
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 Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Aluminum

5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model

4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale

3s 3p
N

2s 2p

1s

Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
Al = 1s22s22p63s23p1
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
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 Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Argon

5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model

4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale

3s 3p
N

2s 2p

1s

Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
Ar = 1s22s22p63s23p6
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
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 Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Iron

5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model

4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale

3s 3p
N

2s 2p

1s

Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
Fe = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
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 Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Lanthanum

5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model

4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale

3s 3p
N

2s 2p

1s

NUCLEUS
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
CLICK ON ELEMENT TO FILL IN CHARTS
Electron Configuration
La = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d10
4s23d104p65s24d105p66s25d1
 III- Electron Configuration

An ion is formed when an atom, or group of atoms, has a

net positive or negative charge (why?).
If a neutral atom looses one or more electrons
it becomes a cation.

Na 11 protons 11 protons
11 electrons Na+
10 electrons

If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons

it becomes an anion.

Cl 17 protons 17 protons
17 electrons Cl- 18 electrons
Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
III- Electron Configuration

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 III- Electron Configuration

Exceptions to the Klechkowski rule

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
IV- The periodic classification of the elements
 IV- The periodic classification of the elements

 The periodic table consists of 7 horizontal rows called periods and 18 vertical rows
called groups.
 The atomic number increases from left to right in horizontal line and from top to
bottom in vertical line
 The elements of the same horizontal line have the same value of the maximum
principal quantum number
 Elements belonging to the same vertical line generally have the same external
electronic structure
n values are constant horizontally
l values are constant vertically
 IV- The periodic classification of the elements

Periodic table can be divided into 3 categories:

 METALS: Good conductors of heat, malleable, ductile, shiny, few

electrons in outer energy level

 NONMETALS: poor conductors of heat, not malleable or ductile,

not shiny, almost complete set of electrons in outer energy level
poor conductors of heat, not malleable or ductile, not shiny,
almost complete set of electrons in outer energy level.

 Metalloids: also called semiconductors have properties of both

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 IV- The periodic classification of the elements

Group #1: Alkali Metals

Group contains: metals
Electrons in outer level: 1
Reactivity: very reactive! Lanthanides: follow lanthanum
similar properties
Group #2: Alkaline-earth metals
Group contains: metals
Electrons in the outer level: 2
Reactivity: very reactive but less
than Alkali Actinides: follow actinium,
all atoms are radioactive,
Groups #3-12: Transition metals
which means they are
Group contains: Metals
unstable
Electrons in the outer level: 1 or 2
Reactivity: Less reactive than
alkaline-earth metals Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
IV- The periodic classification of the elements

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 IV- The periodic classification of the elements

Group #13: Boron group

Group contains: 1 metalloid and 4 metals
Electrons in the outer level: 3
Reactivity: reactive

Group #14: Carbon group

Group contains: 1 non, 2 metalloids, 2 metals
Electrons in the outer level: 4
Reactivity: varies

Group # 15: Nitrogen group

Group contains: 2 non, 2 metalloids, 1 metal
Electrons in the outer level: 5
Reactivity: varies

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 IV- The periodic classification of the elements

Group #16: Oxygen group

Group contains: 3 non, 1 metalloid, 1 metal
Electrons in the outer level: 6
Reactivity: varies

Group #17: Halogen group

Group contains: nonmetals
Electrons in the outer level: 7
Reactivity: VERY reactive

Group # 18: Inert or Noble gases Hydrogen stands alone!

Group contains: nonmetals Electrons in outer level: 1
Electrons in outer level: 8
Reactivity: unreactive
Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 V- Periodic Properties

We will study the following periodic trends:

a) Ionization energy
b) Electron affinity
c) Electronegativity
d) Atomic radius

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 V- Periodic Properties

a) Ionization Energy IE or Ei = minimum energy required

to remove an electron from the ground state of atom
(molecule) in the gas phase
It is s always endothermic and positive +
M(g) + h  M+ + e.
Sign of the ionization energy is always positive, for
example, it requires energy for ionization to occur.
As Ei increases, atoms are harder to ionize

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 V- Periodic Properties

a) Ionization Energy Ei
It increases from left to right and
from bottom to top.

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 V- Periodic Properties

b) Electron Affinity = the energy change which occurs

when an electron is accepted by an atom in the gaseous
state. A(g) + e A-(g)

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 V- Periodic Properties

c) Atomic radius = is ½ the distance between the 2 nuclei

of the adjacent atoms

Atomic radius, in general, decreases as we move from

left to right in a row of the periodic table.

Atomic radius increases from top to bottom in a family or

group.
Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 V- Periodic Properties

c) Electronegativity= is the power of an atom to attract

electron in a covalent bond
The higher the value, the more electronegative the
element
Fluorine is the most electronegative element
It has an electronegativity value of 4.0

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 V- Periodic Properties

Pauling’s electronegativity scale

Echelle de Mulliken
 V- Periodic Properties

IE ↗
EA ↗
EN ↗

IE ↗
EA ↗ r↗
EN ↗

r↗

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL