Nortwestern Visayan Colleges

Kalibo, Aklan

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Learning to read is a vital part of basic education. Reading skill is one of the five skills

beside listening, speaking, writing and viewing that need to established among individual. It is also

the access to the other disciplines. It has been said that reading is the primary avenue to knowledge

(Stem and Gould, 1995). It is the cornerstone of education and the foundation of lifelong learning.

It unlocks the unknown and carries the reader to new discoveries and learning. It provides the

person with different knowledge which he may use in his daily living.

But it is observed that Grade 1 pupils in Altavas Elementary School find reading as the

most difficult skill to learn the reason behind that I think is the wrong choose of strategy in teaching

reading and writing among our grade 1 pupils. Reading is not just however, a natural thing that

originates with in the child. It is a set of skills that gradually develops as the child is subjected to

formal education by the school as the responsible institution for the child`s formal education.

A child who fails to develop his reading skills at a certain level of his education finds

reading boring, and difficult to achieve (Mondero, 1995). If children are not independent readers

on their Language 1 (L1), it is unlikely that they will be able to be successful in the middle grades

and beyond and most likely they rarely able to “catch up” with their peers. This occurrence of

learning failure makes a child inattentive, irritable and passive. Therefore, his failure in this area
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hinders him to achieve academically in other content subjects. This may even lead to negative

attitudes towards schooling.

To meet the mandate by former President Aquino # 5 states that “Every Child a Reader”

by Grade 1 it is suggested that the two-track method be used, that is the primer track to focus on

accuracy and the story track to focus on meaning. Learning via the two-track method to gain

proficiency in literacy as well as comprehend academic content and gain curriculum mastery,

creative and critical thinking skills for decisive decision-making. “The most effective approaches

to developing initial reading skills are those that combine extensive and varied exposure to

meaningful prints (Story Track) with explicit and systematic instruction in phonemic awareness

and letter-sound correspondence (Primer Track) (Jim Cummins, No.1)

The researcher chooses to find out the effects of using the two-track method in teaching

reading and writing using L1 among the grade 1 pupils in Altavas Elementary School to see the

advantages of the use and their effects on the reading and writing performance.

Statement of the Problem

This study dealt on the use of the two-track method in teaching reading and writing as an

approach for the improvement of reading and writing performance of grade 1 pupils. It aimed to

answer the following questions:

1. What is the level of pre-test result of control group and experimental group?

2. What is the level of post-test result of control group and experimental group?

3. Is there a significant difference between the pre-test of control group and experimental

group?
 Nortwestern Visayan Colleges
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4. Is there a significant difference between the post-test of control group and experimental

group?

5. Is there a significant difference between the pre-test of control group and post-test of

experimental group?

6. Is there a significant main gain to show which is effective?

Hypothesis of the Study

Based on the statements of the problems formulated, the following hypotheses were made:

1. There is no significant difference between the pretest-posttest of control group and

experimental group.

2. There is no significant main gain between control group and experimental group to

show which is effective.

Theoretical Framework

This study is anchored on the schema theory of Piaget that described the way mind

acquires, categorizes and organizes knowledge. It also indicated that there can no be no real

learning without meaning. Meaningful learning occurs when we are able to relate new concepts

with our prior knowledge, or schemata. Relating or associating new data with what we already

know is the way that we make sense of the new. The more relationship that we can establish

between new information and prior knowledge, the more comprehension we achieve. When our

mind has associated new information with prior knowledge, it organizes and categorizes the

information so the new can be brought into the existing schemata and assigned its proper place.
 Nortwestern Visayan Colleges
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Once information has been organized and categorized in the cognitive structure, we are able to

retrieve it. When we need information (as an exam). a search goes on throughout our schemata.

The wanted item is located, dissociated (freed) from the surrounding schema in which it has been

embedded, raised to our consciousness and put into working memory. (Adapted from Davis, 1991).

Using the schema theory in our teaching learning process we could help our pupils organized

meaningfully their prior knowledge and are added to their gain experience, develop new

vocabulary, and continue to read, study, and think. The concrete information which forms their

schemata when they are young provides the foundation on which they add related abstract concepts

as they grow older.

Social Theory of Learning by Albert Bandura wherein he asked, “How are societies so

successful in transmitting their ideas of what is good and bad behavior, of what is valued, and of

what skills are most important?” The learners in these societies often seem unaware that they have

been “taught” these behaviors.

Socio-cultural Theory of Learning. Missing in Piaget`s theory: the role of the child`s

cultural and social group. Underestimated in Piaget`s theory: the role and importance of language.

Vygotsky believed that all knowledge in socially constructed, a product of dialogue and interaction

between thought and speech. His emphasis on the social nature of learning complements Piaget`s

theory of the individual passing through stages of cognitive development in a set sequence.

Bruner`s Theory. Ones learns best through repeated experiences. Ones learns best by

building on his/her past experience.

 Nortwestern Visayan Colleges
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Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework of this study was based on the randomized pretest-posttest

control group design by Frankael and Wallen (2006) cited by Legarde (2015) using matched

subjects, where two groups of subjects will be used and measured or observed twice. This design

is shown below:

Experimental Group Mr O1 X O2
__________________________

Control Group Mr O1 C O2

Where:

Mr = Random assignment with match pairing

O1 = Pretest

O2 = Posttest

X = Experimental Group/Using Two-Track Method

C = Control Group/Using the Traditional Way of Teaching Reading and

Writing

Figure 1 showed that 60 pupils were randomly selected from the population and were

matched-paired based from their MTB-MLE grade in the previous grading period. One group was

assigned as the control group and the other as the experimental group. Before the beginning of the

experimentation, each group was administered pretest. After then, two-track method was

introduced to the experimental group while the control group was introduced to the traditional way

of teaching reading and writing. After the duration of experiment, a posttest was conducted. The
 Nortwestern Visayan Colleges
Kalibo, Aklan

results of the pretest on the two group was compared. The same thing in the posttest. Comparing

their results, the difference in the pretest posttest, level of performance using the two-track method

in reading and writing and the traditional way of teaching reading and writing was determined.

compare

Control Using
group Pretest Traditional way
Posttest
of Teaching
Reading &
matched Writing

paired of compare compare

the study
Using Two
Trach Approach
Experimental Pretest in Teaching
group Reading Writing Posttest

compare

Figure 1. The Schematic Diagram of the Study

Significance of the Study

The results of this study are significant to:

Pupils. They experience enjoyment while listening to the stories suited to their own

culture, speak with understanding to communicate knowledge, read for meaning and

understanding, write to communicate knowledge, decode texts by recognizing letters, syllables,

tone marks, syntax, grammar, form letters, words, sentences, paragraph, spell words accurately.
 Nortwestern Visayan Colleges
Kalibo, Aklan

Teachers. This study gives more information on how to become proficient and

innovative Teacher in order to answer the mandate that says “Every Child a Reader” by Grade 1.

School Heads. This study motivates the school heads to help teachers improve their skills

and potentials by letting her/his teachers attend trainings, seminars on making big books, small

books and other Support Instructional Materials (SIMs) to be use in this method.

Department of Education. Learning via the two-track method gain proficiency in literacy

as well comprehend academic content and gain curriculum mastery, creative and critical thinking

skill for decisive decision-making.

Future Researchers. Findings of this study may serve as a good reference for future

researchers to conduct investigations related to this study.

Scope and Limitations of the Study

This study focused to compare its effects of using two-track in teaching reading and

writing to Grade 1 pupils of Altavas Elemenatry School during the School Year 2019-2020.

The study will be conducted at Altavas Elementary School in the District of Altavas, using

the Garde 1 pupils as the research participants of the study.

The participants were the 60 pupils at Altavas Elementary School, 30 using the traditional

way of teaching reading and writing (control group) and 30 exposed to the two-track method

(experimental group). To avoid or minimized errors, the researcher participants who belong to the

control group were match-paired with the participants in the experimental group.
 Nortwestern Visayan Colleges
Kalibo, Aklan

This study used the experimental method research. The test question/assessment tool was

used as a main tool in gathering the data. Frequency, percentage and mean were used to described

the summation given by the participants, while t-test was used to test the difference among

variables.

To determine the level of reading and writing performance of Grade 1 pupils, the criteria

stipulated in DepEd Order No. 31 series 2012 under assessment and rating of learning outcomes

was used. Inferential statistics such as t-test and analysis of variance was used in analyzing the

data. The data will be processed through IBM Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS)

software version 23a.

Definition of Terms

To have better understanding the concepts used in this study, the following terms are

defined operationally.

Primer Track/ Accuracy Track. In this study, it emphasized that they recognize and

distinguish sounds, syllables, words and sentences, they use correct vocabulary, pronunciation and

grammar, they recognize parts of words (letters, syllables, tone marks, etc.), sentences and

paragraphs, and can sound them out, they form letters properly and neatly, spell words correctly,

and use correct grammar.

Reading and Writing Performance. In this study, it refers to the scores obtained by the

experimental and control, during the posttest as the outcome of the study.
 Nortwestern Visayan Colleges
Kalibo, Aklan

Story Track/ Meaning Track. In this study, it emphasized pupils listen in order to

understand and respond to what they hear, they speak in order to communicate their thoughts and

ideas to others, they read for enjoyment and to understand and use new ideas and information, they

write in order to communicate their thoughts and ideas using their learned language.

Support Instructional Materials (SIMs). In this study, they are referred to culturally

relevant learning materials (big box, big books, small books) used as aids in the teaching learning

process to produce better learning outcomes.

Traditional Way of Teaching Reading and Writing. In this study it referred to the

activity wherein the teacher must teach sounds and letters in isolation, then from words and

sentences, and finally read a book. Learners recognize the word and then pronounce it when

accompanied or not accompanied by pictures.

Two-Track Method. In this study the two-track approach to teaching reading and writing

emphasizes “meaning”1 (understanding whole texts) and “accuracy”2 (learning word

identification strategies). Since activities in both tracks include some meaning and some accuracy,

the distinction is on the focus of the activities in each one.

 Nortwestern Visayan Colleges
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CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter explains the research design, local of the study, subjects of the study,

instruments used, data gathering procedures, and data analysis.

Research Design

This study utilized the experimental methods of research known as method of difference.

An experimental study involves two groups an experimental group and control group. The

experimental group typically receives a new or novel treatment, a treatment under investigation

while the control group either receives a different treatment, or is treated as usual. The two groups

which are to receive different treatments are equated on all other variables which might be related

to performance on the dependent variables. After the groups have been exposed to the treatment

for some period of time, the researcher administers a test of the dependent variable and then

determines whether there is a significant difference between the groups Sevilla, et al. (2005).

Locale of the Study

This study was conducted in Altavas Elementary School in the District of Altavas. Altavas

was 38 kilometers and 44 mins travel from the capital town of Kalibo. Altavas Elementary School

is one of the 18 complete elementary and 1 primary school in the District of Altavas. Altavas

Elementary School is headed by a School Principal II. The school has as total enrolment of

Below is the map of the Municipality of Altavas, Aklan showing the location of the

study.
 Nortwestern Visayan Colleges
Kalibo, Aklan

Figure 2. Map of the Municipality of Altavas, Aklan showing the location of the study.
 Nortwestern Visayan Colleges
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Respondents of the Study

The respondents were the Grade 1 pupils enrolled in the School Year 2019-2020 at

Altavas Elementary School. Two sections were used: section SPED GT (30) received the two-

track method while section A received the traditional way on instruction. Out of Grade 1 pupils

from section SPED GT and section A of Altavas Elementary School, all 60 were used as the

research participants. They were selected using a systematic random sampling technique. After

they have been chosen, they were match-paired between the experimental and control groups using

their average grade in their Grade 1 second grading period as basis. The participants in the pretest

were the same participants in the posttest. The number of respondents per group is shown in Table

1.

Table 1

Participants of the Study

Participants

Section Pretest Posttest

N % N %

Grade 1 – SPED GT 15 50.00 15 50.00

Grade 1 - A 15 50.00 15 50.00

Total 30 100.00 30 100.00

 Nortwestern Visayan Colleges
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Research Instrument

The two - track approach activities and the DepEd traditional way of teaching reading and

writing were the instruments used in the study. The material used in the two-track approach were

all contextualized and was subjected to content validation by the experts in the field.

On the other hand, the traditional way of teaching reading and writing activities were no

longer validated for they were used already in the field and these were used by the control group.

Other instrument used in this study was a 20-item written test that was used for pretest

and posttest to both experimental and control groups to determine the significant difference

between the use of two-track approach and the traditional way.

Data Gathering Procedure

Upon the approval of the research proposal by the Advisory Committee, the researcher

prepared a letter addressed to the School Division Superintendent of Aklan to ask permission to

conduct a study on the “Two-Track Method: An Approach to Teaching Reading and Writing” in

Altavas Elementary School.

With the approval of the School Division Superintendent, Division of Aklan, the

researcher sent a letter to school supervisor and heads of school informing them the conduct of the

study in their school. With the approved permit, the researcher started availing of the documents:

list of Grade 1 pupils, their grades in MTB-MLE in the first grading period, their age and sex.

Match-pairing of the experimental and the control groups was done.

 Nortwestern Visayan Colleges
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Before the start of the experiment, the researcher secured parents` permit to allow their

children to participate in this study. The researcher also conducted a meeting with the grade 1

teachers and explained the objectives of this study, so that they will be aware of the experiment

that had been conducted and asked their cooperation when the researcher needs their assistance.

The researcher then administered the pretest to both experimental and control group

simultaneously. After the pretest, the use of two-track method was introduced by the teacher to the

experimental group while the traditional way was introduced by the teacher to the control group.

One lesson was administered to both experimental and control groups with the duration of 5 days.

Both groups were treated equally with the same procedure and time allotment. They only differed

in their activities.

After introducing the activities in the two-track method and the traditional way, the

researcher administered the posttest to both experimental and control groups. The raw scores

obtained by each participant in the pre and posttest were tallied and tabulated, and compared to

find out the difference on the level of reading and writing performance of Grade 1 pupils who

received the two-track method and who received the traditional way.

In the conduct of this study, the researcher sought permission from the parents to include

their children as subjects of this study telling them the purpose of the study.

To avoid biases, pupil-participants of this study were not informed so that their

classroom behavior was just natural or normal. The experimental and control groups were treated

with the same procedure and time allotment throughout the duration of the study.
 Nortwestern Visayan Colleges
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Data Analysis

The data gathered in this study were treated using frequency counts, percentages, and

weighted means to determined the level of performance of Grade 1 pupils after the intervention.

to compare the performance of the experimental and control groups, t-test was used.

All data were processed using the IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)

software version 23. The decision to reject or accept the null hypotheses was based on the p-value

generated. If the p-value is less than 0.05, the null hypothesis will be rejected. Zif a p-value is

greater than 0.05, the null hypothesis will be accepted.

Scoring Procedure. For scoring purposes, the researcher adopted the corresponding

description based on the following level progress stipulated in DepEd Order No. 31, s. 2012 under

assessment and rating of learning outcomes, viz:

Score Category Description

17-20 Advanced The pupil exceeds the core requirements in terms of

knowledge, skills and understandings and can transfer them
automatically and flexibly through authentic performance
tasks.

13-16 Proficient The pupil has developed the fundamental knowledge and
skills and core understandings, and can transfer them
independently through authentic performance tasks.

9-12 Approaching The pupil has developed the fundamental knowledge and
Proficiency skills and core understandings, and with little guidance from
the teacher and/or with some assistance from peers, can
transfer these understanding through authentic performance
tasks.
5-8 Developing The pupil possesses the minimum knowledge and skills and
core understanding, but needs help throughout the
performance of authentic tasks.

1-4 Beginning The pupil struggle with his/her understanding; prerequisites

and fundamental knowledge and/or skills have not been
acquired or developed adequately to aid understanding.
 Nortwestern Visayan Colleges
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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the related literatures and studies that will help establish the

grounding for this study.

FOUR ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE EDUCATION

S&D Malone, 2013, adapted from Stringer& Faraclas, 2001. Language education programs

help students build fluency and confidence in speaking, listening, reading and writing their own

language as well as other languages they are expected to learn in school. Effective language

education programs focus on both meaning and accuracy in all four components, from the very

beginning.

Emphasis on meaning Emphasis on accuracy

(Focus on whole texts)
Listening Students listen in order to
understand and respond to
what they hear.
Speaking They speak in order to
communicate their
thoughts and ideas to
others.
Reading They read for enjoyment
and to understand and use
new ideas and information
Writing They write in order to
communicate their
thoughts and ideas.
(Focus on parts of the
language)
They recognize and
distinguish sounds,
syllables, words and
sentences.
They use correct
vocabulary, pronunciation
and grammar.
They recognize parts of
words (letters, syllables,
tone marks, etc.),
sentences and paragraphs,
and can sound them out.
They form letters properly
and neatly, spell words
correctly, and use correct
grammar.
 Some educators would add “thinking” as the 5th component of Language Education. The

“Two Track” approach to reading and writing includes “higher level thinking” questions that

require students to give reasons for their answers, apply their thoughts and ideas to different

contexts, analyze problems and situations and be creative in using what they have learned. This,

of course, is very difficult if students are forced to learn to read and write in a language they do

not know well. However, these higher level questions are quite appropriate for students learning

to read and write in their mother tongue (L1) because that is already their “thinking” language.

THE “TWO-TRACK” APPROACH TO TEACHING READING AND WRITING

The two-track approach to teaching reading and writing emphasizes “meaning”1

(understanding whole texts) and “accuracy”2 (learning word identification strategies). Since

activities in both tracks include some meaning and some accuracy, the distinction is on the focus

of the activities in each one.

MEANING TRACK ACCURACY TRACK

Shared reading Picture and key word

Experience story Big box

Listening story and library time Sentence-making

Creative writing Spelling and handwriting

THE READING PLAN

The Reading Plan, used in both the Meaning Track and Accuracy Track, is composed of

the following sequence of activities:

1. Teacher reads the entire text to the students.

[If the students have already learned the letters in the text, they read it together to the teacher.]
2. Teacher reads the text with all the students.

3. Teacher reads one part of the text with one or two student volunteers.

4. One or two student volunteers read part of the text by themselves.3

5. Teacher and students read the entire text together.

IMPORTANT: In Steps 2 & 3, the teacher always reads with the students. Students should not

listen to the teacher read a sentence and then repeat it.

SUGGESTED 5-DAY SCHEDULE FOR MEANING TRACK AND ACCURACY TRACK

This schedule is based on a 5-day school week. Divide the sessions in the way that suits

your situation best.

Day 1 Meaning Track: Shared Reading and Creative Writing + Library Time Day 1 Accuracy

Track: Key Word lesson

Day 2 Meaning Track: Experience Story and Listening Story + Library Time Day 2 Accuracy

Track: Review Day 1 and then introduce the next Key Word lesson

Day 3 Meaning Track: Same as Day 1 Day 3 Accuracy Track: Review Day 2 and then introduce

the next Key Word lesson

Day 4 Meaning Track: Same as Day 2 Day 4 Accuracy Track: Review Day 3 and then introduce

the next Key Word lesson

Day 5: Review Meaning Track and Accuracy Track lessons learned so far

MEANING TRACK LESSON #1 (minimum of 40 minutes)4 Shared Reading Story, Creative

Writing, Library Time

SHARED READING (20 minutes)

Preparation (Do this before class begins.)

If you are using a Big Book or Poster Story5:

Practice reading the story aloud 2-3 times so you can read it fluently and with understanding.

Select 4 words from the story to use for the Matching Word activity. Write each word on a piece

of paper so the words are the same size as the words in the Big Book or poster story.

Select 3 short sentences from the story that you will use for the “Hide-a-Word activity. Have a

straight stick ready to use as a pointer.

If you are using small books 6:

Take out the small books. You should have enough to give one book to every 1 or 2 students.

Practice reading the story aloud 2-3 times so you can read it fluently.

Select 4 words from the story to use for the Matching Word activity and select 3 short sentences

from the story that you will use for the “Hide-a-Word activity. You will write these words and

sentences on the chalkboard.

1. Introduce the Shared Reading story

Introduce the story topic but do not show students the cover picture yet. Ask them questions about

people and events in their own lives to encourage them to think and talk about the story topic.

2. Read the story using the Reading Plan

If you are using a Big Book, show students the cover picture. Ask 1-2 students to tell you what

they think the story will be about based on the picture. Encourage them to share their ideas freely.

Read the title of the story to the students. Move your pointer smoothly just under the words as you

read.

Show the students the picture that goes with the first page of the text. Ask them to describe the

picture. Then say, “Let me read this page to you.” Read the text for that page, moving the pointer

smoothly under the text as you read.

Do the same for each page. As you are reading, stop 2 or 3 times to ask, “What do you think will

happen next?” Encourage students to share their ideas freely (no incorrect answers!)

When you have finished reading the entire story, ask the students some simple comprehension

questions (what? who? where? when?) and some higher level questions like these: “Why do you

think that happened?” or “What would have happened if…?” or What part of the story did you like

the best? What part didn’t you like? Why?

Then follow Steps 2-5 of the Reading Plan. Move the pointer smoothly under the words as you

and the students read.

3. Do the Matching Word activity.

Show the students the Matching Word cards that you prepared.

Then show them the Big Book (or Poster Story) sentence that has the same words as the word

cards. (See the gray “Preparation” box above.)

Call for volunteers for each Matching Word card. Volunteers take turns putting their word cards

under the matching words in the sentence. Invite a classmate to help anyone that has trouble finding

the correct matching words. When they match the word correctly, read the word with them and

everyone clap.

If you are using a small book, write the words on the chalkboard rather than on cards. Show

students one of the words you wrote on the chalkboard and tell them to open their books to that

page, hold up their books and point to the matching word. Check that they are pointing to the

correct word.

4. Do the Hide-a-Word activity.

Find the first sentence that you chose for the Hide-A-Word activity. Read that sentence with the

students.
Hold a small piece of paper over one of the important words in that sentence.

Read the sentence again, including the word that is covered, with the students.

Ask the students, “Which of the words in that sentence did I cover?”

If they say the correct word, uncover the word and praise them. Then read the sentence again with

the students.

If they say the wrong word, point to the word they said to show them that this is not the word that

is covered. Read the sentence again and let them try again to identify the covered word.

Do this with the other “Hide-A-Word” sentences.

CREATIVE WRITING (15 minutes)

1. Encourage students to think about the weekly theme.

Encourage the students to think about the weekly theme and then to create their own picture and

story about the theme. Encourage them to create a story about something that really happened to

them or something from their imagination.

2. Students draw a picture and write a story.

Go around the room and encourage the students to write freely and to make their stories

interesting. Encourage them to add details to their pictures and stories. Praise them for their

attempts and do not correct spelling or handwriting when they are writing creatively.7
The Critical Dimensions of Language and Literacy in Early Childhood

Language. Verbal abilities are consistently the best predictors of later reading achievement

(Scarborough, 2001). Skilled readers typically draw upon multiple levels of the language system

(Dickinson, McCabe, Anastasopoulos, Peisner-Feinberg, & Poe, 2003), with abilities

encompassing vocabulary, syntax, and discourse. Vocabulary size in optimal settings may increase

exponentially in the early years (some estimate about seven words a day) (Snow et al., 1998), with

children learning to comprehend words spoken to them before they are able to produce them on

their own. Word knowledge, however, is not just developed through exposure to increasingly

complex language, but to knowledge-building language experiences (Neuman, 2001) that involve

children in developing and refining networks of categorically-related concepts.

With word learning occurring so rapidly, children begin to make increasingly fine

distinctions of words not only based on their meaning but also based on their sound. They begin

to make implicit comparisons between similar sounding words, a phenomenon described by

linguists as lexical restructuring (Goswami, 2001; Metsala, 1999). For example, a two-year old

child probably knows the words “cat” from “cut;” “hot” from “not.” Distinguishing between these

similar sounding words both quickly and accurately, children begin to hear sequences of sound
that constitute each known word. Children with large vocabularies become attuned to these

segments and acquire new words rapidly; children with smaller vocabularies may be limited to

more global distinctions. Consequently, vocabulary size and vocabulary rate are important for

lexical restructuring (i.e., making sound distinctions between words) (Goswami, 2001), and are

strongly tied to the emergence of phonological awareness.

Recent analyses (Dickinson et al., 2003) have made it abundantly clear, however, that oral

language skills, and more specifically vocabulary development, not only play a role in

phonological awareness but also are critical skills for the development of reading comprehension

later on. Therefore, it is essential for quality indicators in early childhood programs to recognize

that oral language and vocabulary development is the foundation for all other skills critical to

successful reading.

Phonological awareness. Based on a massive body of research (Burgess, 2006; Lonigan,

2006), phonological awareness is a critical precursor, correlate, and predictor of children’s reading

achievement. Discriminating units of language (i.e., words, segments, phonemes) is strongly

linked to successful reading (National Reading Panel Report, 2000). It is, however, as described

above, both a cause and a consequence of vocabulary development and learning to read (Ehri &

Roberts, 2006). Typically developing children begin first to discriminate among units of language

(i.e., phonological awareness), then within these units (i.e., phonemic awareness). Phonological

awareness refers to the general ability to attend to the sounds of language as distinct from its

meaning. Phonemic awareness is the insight that every spoken word can be conceived as units of

sounds that are represented by the letter of an alphabet (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998).
 Evidence (Lonigan, 2006; Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998) suggests that children achieve

syllabic sensitivity earlier than they achieve sensitivity to phonemes, and sensitivity to rhyme

before sensitivity to phonemes. Children’s entry to these skills typically begins with linguistic

activities such as language games and nursery rhymes (Maclean, Bryant, & Bradley, 1987) that

implicitly compare and contrast the sounds of words, and include alliterative phrases (i.e., bibbily

bobbily boo begins with /b/). But implicit comparisons, alone, may be insufficient. Phonological

awareness and phonemic awareness are meta-linguistic abilities (Adams, 1990). Children must not

only be able to recite and play with sound units, they must also develop an understanding that

sound units map onto whole or parts of written language.

Phonological awareness should not be confused with phonics. The term phonics, or

decoding, assumes that children understand the phonemic composition of words, and the phoneme-

grapheme (sound/letter) relationship. Studies that have attempted to accelerate learning through

early phonics training have shown no effects (Snow et al., 1998); in fact, evidence suggests that

such training, without a firm understanding of phonemic awareness, may be detrimental to

remembering words and learning to spell.

Recent reviews and analyses (Dickinson et al., 2003; Scarborough, 2001) have placed

phonological awareness as a critical part of a complex braid of language abilities which include

strands of phonology, semantics, syntax, pragmatics, and discourse. Its tie to children’s ability to

decode has been clearly established. At the same time, quality indicators would do well to

recognize that phonological awareness skills are integrally connected to other important language

skills which need to be strongly bolstered in these early education and care programs.

What does research inform us about teaching reading in general?

 Alexander & Fox (2004) captured the last amendments to key elements in reading

instruction from the mid 1990’s to present. The conceptions of text, the reader, and learning with

and from text have much evolved. Text no longer refers solely to linear, printed materials. Any

materials that can be conveyed via audiovisual media also constitute texts. Those alternative texts

can be non-linear, interactive, dynamic, and visually complex (Wade & Moje, 2000); they can also

appear under the form of discussions that occurred around these new different forms of text

(Alvermann, Commeyras, Young, Randall & Hinson, 1997; Wade, Thompson, & Watkins, 1994).

Readers’ motivation or affect have been taken into consideration and readers have been recently

perceived as engaged or motivated based on their interest, goals, and active participation in text-

based learning (Guthrie & Wigfield, 2000). Engaged readers, instead of being passive receptacles

of information, actively participate in their learning by interacting with others inside and outside

the classroom (Guthrie, McGough, Bennett, & Rice, 1996). Reading instruction has taken a bigger

scope and has involved readers of all abilities and ages. It has gone beyond the initial phase of

acquisition and seeks to foster the readers’ lifelong engagement in varieties of reading- related and

goal-directed activities (Alexander, 2006). This endeavor to engage readers in a constant

involvement in readingrelated and goal-directed practice is justified by the continuing emergence

of various forms of texts and genres of text which are nothing else but socially constructed

language practices which are the responses to social needs and contexts (Purcell-Gates, Duke, &

Martineau, 2007). Keeping abreast to and staying literate in these new forms and genres of text are

not sheer fads but life skills that anyone should have to function in an evolving society with

evolving sociocultural needs and contexts. Readers are expected to grow in their linguistic

knowledge, subject matters knowledge, strategic capabilities, and motivations throughout their

lifetimes (Alexander, 1997). As we come into the 21st century, reading instruction is oriented to a
new direction. Researchers are talking about a reconditioning era as the emerging idea relates to

the behavioral model of instruction. It concerns the identification, teaching, and remediation of the

reading subskills or components underlying reading acquisition (Foorman, Francis, Fletcher,

Schatscneider, & Mehta, 1998). Research syntheses (Adams, 1990; national Reading panel, 2000;

Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998) suggested that explicit teaching of phonics and reading practice

with the use of texts that feature a high percentage of decodable words appear to benefit most

learners who had poor reading performance. The same research syntheses implied that most

learners get advantage from the use of such a behavioral method because learning to read is not a

‘natural process’. A perfect illustration of this new orientation in reading instruction is the Read

180 Program which aims at identifying, teaching, and remedying reading subskills such as

spelling, sounding out of words, and reading comprehension per se.