Phot ogrammet ry – means measuring of images on a photograph.

Derived from
Greek words, “photos” meaning light, “ gramma” meaning that which is drawn
or written, and “metron” meaning to measure. The term photogrammetry
means the measuring of images on a photograph.

Hist ory and Development of Phot ogrammet ry

Arist ot le 350 BC, first record of optical projection of images, published

knowledge of the fact that the image of the sun appeared round when
projected through a square hole and was amplified with increasing distance
from the aperture.

Leonardo da Vinci wrote of the camera obscura about 1500 AD.

Thomas Wedgwood in 1802 printed silhouettes without fixation on leather

sensitized with silver nitrate.

Wheat st one in 1832, began to experiment with stereoscopy, and in 1938 he

constructed the first of the present type of mirror stereoscopes as an aid to
stereoscopic observation of drawings.
Elliot in 1834, observed drawings stereoscopically through a box fitted at
the near end with two eyeholes and toward the far end with a central
aperture through which the lines of sight from the two eyes crossed for
observation of laterally transposed drawings.

Brewst er 1844, stereoscopes with prisms and lenses were introduced.

d 1858, he demonstrated in Paris the principle of stereoscopic

observation by means of dichromatic projection of images.

Arago of the French Academy of Science, initiated the application of

photography to topographic surveying, architecture and archaeology.

Aime Laussedat of the Corps of Engineers of the French army developed the
mathematical analysis of photographs as perspective projections, thereby
furthering their application to topography.

Porro 1853, developed the principle of observation through lenses.

Meydenbauer 1858, began research on the application of terrestrial

photogrammetry to architecture and to design of monuments, which work
was recalled by M. Deneux following the first world war for the
reconstruction of monuments and of the cathedral of Reims by means of
measurements from photographs.
John F.W. Herschel 1819, discovered the hyposulphites and their property of
dissolving silver chloride.

Niepce (1822-1825) printed engravings on tin sensitized with bitumen, and in

1847 he made the first negative on glass.

L.J.M. Daguerre (1835-1837) evolved the method of direct photography

Abbé Moigno 1850, Stereoscopic photography began with his work.

Paganini 1884, invented the phototheodolites.

Deville in Canada in 1896, he developed the first automatic plotting

instrument for topographic surveying.

Colonel von Hubl (Austria) in 1894 he adapted the methods of Laussedat to

work in high mountains and developed the stereocomparator.

Lieut enant von Orel (Austria) 1903, transformed the stereocomparator into a
plotting instrument known as the stereoautograph.

Wilbur Wright obtained the first photograph from an airplane in the form of a
motion picture taken over Centocelli, Italy in 1909.
Capt ain Tardino 1913, he described the first photographs taken for the
specific purpose of mapping in a paper presented at the International Society
of Photogrammetry held in Vienna.

Ot t o von Gruber 1942, he published a book detailing the basic principles of

modern mapping methods.

DEVELOPMENT CYCLES

The developments in photogrammetry, from around 1850, have followed four

development cycles. Each of these periods extended about fifty years. These
cycles include:

a) Plane table photogrammetry, from about 1850 to 1900

b) Analog photogrammetry, from about1900 to 1960

c) Analytical photogrammetry, from about 1960 to present

d) Digital photogrammetry, which is just beginning to be a presence in

the photogrammetric industry.
Uses of Phot ogrammet ry:
1. It is widely used for the compilation of planimetric and topographic maps.
2. Photogrammetry is often employed to extend ground control from networks
of control monuments, and in determining precise ground coordinates of points
in control surveys.
3. In the design and construction of roads and railroads, aerial photographs are
analysed for the selection of suitable and economical routes.
4. Aerial photographs can also be used in planning ground surveys.

Advant ages and Disadvant ages of Phot ographic Mapping:

The advant ages of compiling planimetric or topographic maps by using

photogrammetric methods include:
1. Speed in compiling the map.
2. Reduction in the extent of horizontal and vertical control surveys.
3. High accuracy attained in locating planimetric and topographic features and
details.
4. Reduced likelihood of omitting relevant data due to the tremendous amount
of detail obtained from photographs.
5. Significant reduction in cost of undertaking the mapping operation.
6. Difficulties encountered in surveying rugged and inaccessible terrain are
eliminated.
7. Freedom from interference by adverse weather conditions during the
compilation of the map.
Disadvant ages of mapping by aerial phot ographs are:

1. It is not economical for mapping areas of small extent.

2. The difficulty of plotting areas containing heavy ground cover, such as
underbrush, forested areas, and dense vegetation.
3. Difficulty of locating contour lines in flat terrain.
4. Necessity for conducting field editing and field completion surveys.
5. Initial investment to procure expensive photogrammetric equipment and
their subsequent maintenance.
6. The need to employ skilled personnel to handle sophisticated
photogrammetric equipment.

Dist inct Areas of Phot ogrammet ry

Photogrammetry is divided into two distinct areas:

1. Metric Photogrammetry – This particular area refers to the use of

measurements made on aerial photographs to obtain quantitative data about
the earth surface. It basically involves the precise measurements and
computations to determine shapes and sizes of objects. It is the phase of
photogrammetry most frequently applied in surveying operations. The usual
end product that results from metric photogrammetry is a map of a selected
project area.
2. Interpretive Photogrammetry – In interpretive photogrammetry we are
more interested in recognizing and identifying objects on the photograph, as
well as judging their significance. The critical factors considered in
identifying objects are the shapes, sizes, patterns, shadows, tones, and
texture of their images. The product of interpretive photogrammetry is
usually a map showing information such as the distribution of soil types, land
use, vegetation species, rock types or other environmental factors.
Interpretive photogrammetry includes branches of photographic
interpretation and remote sensing.

Classificat ion of Phot ographs

1. Terrestrial Photographs – are taken with ground based cameras from

known positions of stations with the camera axis horizontal or nearly so.
Photographs of this type are used for the preparation of topographic maps of
rather inaccessible areas such as mountains, high cliffs, and canyons. For
taking terrestrial photographs a phototheodolite is used.

Phototheodolite – it is a combination of theodolite and camera mounted on a

tripod.

Ballistic Camera – is another type of terrestrial camera . It is a large camera

which is set up at a selected ground station and used to obtain photographs
of orbiting artificial satellites against a dark background.
 2. Aerial Photographs – are photographs of the terrain taken by a precision
camera mounted in an airplane, balloon or spacecraft flying over the area.

2 Classification of Aerial Photographs:

a) Vert ical Phot ographs- photographs taken when the axis of the camera at
the time of the exposure is pointing vertically downwards and
perpendicular to the earth’s mean surface.
b) Oblique Phot ographs – are exposed with the camera axis tilted
intentionally away from the vertical. They may be either low oblique
photographs or high oblique photographs.

High Oblique Photographs – it includes the horizon while a low oblique does
not. The angle of a tilt usually ranges between 30º and 60º.

3. Extraterrestrial Photographs – is a rather new classification of photograph

which has emerged as a result of space exploration. Many believe that this
type of photogrammetry (now referred to as Space Photogrammetry) holds
great promise for the future.

4. Composite Photographs – is made by joining several photographs taken at a

single camera station usually by a multi- lens camera. It is the result of a
combination of a vertical and oblique photography or only oblique
photographs.
3 Classification of Composite Photographs:
1. Dual St rip Phot ographs – two cameras are mounted, one on each side of
the aircraft with the axis at right angles to the direction of flight. It is a
result of exposures taken simultaneously. The cameras are usually tilted
from 5º to 7º from the vertical to give low oblique photographs.
2. Triple St rip Phot ographs – three cameras are employed during
photography, one in the center which points vertically downward and the
other two are tilted as in dual strip photography except that the tilt ranges
from 7º to 10º. The additional tilt allows the tilted strips to just overlap
the lateral edges of the vertical strip. It gives a larger coverage for
photography.
3. Trimet rogon phot ographs – the trimetrogon system has a photographic
unit which consists of three wide-angle single-lens cameras. One is in
vertical position and the two in oblique position and all three cameras are
exposed simultaneously from the same aircraft. The exposures are not
printed as one picture but, are used separately. In this method the terrain
is photographed from horizon to horizon, to the left and right of the line of
flight.

AERIAL CAMERAS – is used to obtain the photographs from which required

data can be extracted. These cameras are precision instruments designed
to take photographs from aircraft.
Component s Part s of an Aerial Camera:

1. The Magazine- is a light-tight container which holds the supply of exposed

and unexposed film. It has a Supply Spool and Take-up Spool- a mechanism for
advancing the film after each exposure, and a device for holding the film flat in
the focal plane at the instant the exposure is made.
Film Flattening – is accomplished by means of a surface platen against which
film is pressed.

2. Camera Body – is a one-piece casting which houses the drive mechanism for
the shutter assembly and the magazine.

3. Lens Cone Assembly – contained the lens, filter, diaphragm, nodal points and
the shutter.

3.1 Lens – most important part of an aerial camera is the lens. Its
function is to gather light rays for each point on the terrain and bring them into
focus within the focal plane behind the lens. The quality of photography is
largely dependent on the camera lens used.

3.2 Filter – are pieces of colored glass placed in front of the camera
lens to prevent stray and undesirable lights from entering the camera. Basically
it reduces the effect of atmospheric haze, and helps provide uniform light
distribution over the entire format of the lens from dust and flying particles
which might damage the lens or reduce its effectiveness.

3.3 Diaphragm – It is the physical opening of the lens system. Is made up of

a series of leaves which can be rotated to increase or decrease the size of the
lens opening. Its function is to control the amount of light striking the emulsion
of the film.

3.4 Nodal Points – front and rear nodal points are the two points
positioned between the lens elements and along the optical axis of the
camera.

3.5 Shutter – controls the length of time that light is permitted to pass
through the lens.

Classification of Aerial Cameras

1. Classificat ion by Type

a) Single-Lens Camera
b) Multi-Lens Camera
c) Strip Camera
d) Panoramic Camera
2. Classificat ion by angular field
a) Normal Angle Camera ( Up to 75º)
b) Wide Angle Camera ( 75º to 100º)
c) Super Wide Angle Camera ( Over 100º)

3. Classificat ion by Focal Lengt h

a) Short Lens Camera (Up to 15 cm)
b) Long Lens Camera ( Up to 30 cm)

4. Classificat ion by Use

a) Reconnaissance Camera
b) Mapping Camera
c) Special

Single Lens Camera – it is the simplest type of aerial camera and it is the one
commonly used in obtaining photographs for mapping purposes. It provide the
highest geometric picture quality.
Multi-Lens Camera – have two or more lenses and expose one or more films
simultaneously.
Strip Camera – is used to obtain a continuous photograph of a strip of a terrain
beneath the flight line of the aircraft.
Panoramic Camera – Photographs taken by this camera portray strips of
terrain taken transverse to the direction of flight. The camera scans laterally
from one side of the flight path to the other.
CAMERA ACCESSORIES
1. Viewfinder – enables the photographer to have a continuous view of the
terrain below the aircraft and to see the ground coverage of each
photograph.
2. Camera Mount – is a device which is used to attach the camera to the
aircraft.
3. Power Supply- is the source of power supply for the drive mechanism of the
aerial camera and the intervalometer.
4. Vacuum Line – is necessary for film flattening in aerial cameras.
5. Level Vial – it is attached to the camera which aids in determining if the
optical axis of the camera lens is vertical in spite of any slight tip and tilt
of the aircraft.
6. Intervalometer – this device can automatically trip the shutter at a
specified time and also move the film automatically.

Fiducial Marks – are used to locate the principal point or geometric center of
the photograph.

Principal point – defined as the point in the focal plane intersected by the
optical axis of the lens. This point is important in reconstructing the geometry
of the photograph. There are usually four fiducial marks which are used to
locate the photograph’s principal point.
Focal Lengt h

The focal length of the camera is defined as the distance between the rear
nodal point of the lens and the focal plane. The focal length is usually fixed
for most aerial cameras and its value is precisely determined by calibration.

Some camera lenses may be of variable focal lengths. Such type of lens is
better known as the “zoom lens” for its ability to zoom in on an object from
far away to a much closer distance.

Camera lenses may be classified as:

1. Short Focal Lengt h – If the focal length of a camera lens is less than
305mm (12”), it is termed short focal length. Short focal length cameras
provide wider ground coverage at a given flying height than longer focal
lengths.

2. Long Focal Lengt h – A camera lens with a focal length greater than 305mm
is termed long focal length. Long lenses reach out like telescope to provide a
greatly enlarged image of distant objects from high altitudes.
Angular Field of View
Angular field of view is an angle measured at the apex of the usable cone of rays
entering the camera lens. This angle may be calculated by determining the angle
subtended at the rear nodal point of the lens of the diagonal of the photograph
or by formula.

Where:

D = is the diagonal distance of the picture format

f = is the focal length of the camera used.

Both quantities need to be expressed in identical units (cm, mm, or inches).

From the given equation, it can be inferred that for a particular format size,
the angular field of view decreases as the focal length increases
Scale of Vert ical Phot ographs

Average Scale of Vert ical Phot ograph

Ot her Met hods of Det ermining Phot ograph Scale

1. Measuring Photo Distance and Ground Distance
2. Comparing With a Map of Known Scale

Scale & Area Measurement

Scale is the ratio of a distance on an aerial photograph to that same distance on
the ground in the real world. It can be expressed in unit equivalents like 1 inch =
1,000 feet (or 12,000 inches) or as a dimensionless representative fraction
(1/12,000) or as a dimensionless ratio (1:12,000).
The diagram illustrates some important
concepts about the geometry of the flat
surface that apply to the calculation of
scale and area from air photos. The first
thing to notice is that the distance from D
to E and A to B are proportional to the
ratio of the focal length (f) to the height
above the ground (H). This allows for the
calculation of proportional lengths
because the angles formed on either side
of the lens, labeled point C on the
diagram, are identical. Also note that the
center point of the image (the Principal
Point, PP) and the actual center point on
the ground (Nadir) fall along the optical
axis of the camera in this idealized
diagram.
Phot o Scale
Knowledge of the camera focal length and the aircraft altitude makes it
possible to determine photo scale (PS) and the representative fraction (RF) of a
photo
Area Measurement s

The important thing to keep in mind, once you have mastered measuring
distances, is that areas have squared units. For a rectangular area its length x
width, so if you measure both and convert these distances remember that if
you are multiplying them together the resulting units are squared.
For example, if an area is 100 meters by 500 meters, it is 50,000 square
meters. Now if you wanted to change that number to square feet its not x
3.28, its x 10.76 (3.28x3.28), there are 3.28 feet per meter. Also, it helps to
think it though; if you're converting from square meters to square feet should
the resulting number be bigger or smaller? Knowing units and distances will
help you learn how to arrange the calculations and to recognize incorrect
calculations.

The precision of a measurement is dependent upon; your ability to determine

photo scale, the precision of the conversion factors, the precision of the
measuring device (e.g. using a standard 12 inch ruler or a millimeter scaled
ruler) and the accuracy with which you can determine the edges of a feature
or area.
Athletic fields have standard dimensions, you can use these lengths to
calculate photo scale.
Techniques for area measurement s:
1) Polar Planimet ers
2) Transect
Line intercept or transect method of canopy estimation is analogous to the
dot grid method and is similarly accurate. In this method lines are
superimposed on the aerial image and the length of each line that overlays
tree canopy is compared to the total line length. Canopy cover is then
calculated as: % canopy cover = 100 x (length of lines covered by trees/total
length of lines in sample)
Lines may be printed on a transparent sheet or can be designated by
randomly dropping a clear scale on the photo. If streets or other features are
arranged in parallel lines, sampling bias is best avoided by using a random
arrangement of lines rather than parallel lines on the sampling overlay.
Accuracy is improved by using more short lines rather than a few long lines.
3) Dot Grids
Dot grid area estimations involve laying a transparent grid over an area of
interest and counting the grid cells or dots that fall within that area. This is
a quick and easy way to estimate areas, or to estimate the density of
objects, and is relatively easy to understand. Each dot or grid cell is
proportional to an area according to the scale of the source image, summing
the number of dots or grid cells and multiplying by the scale conversion
allows you to estimate areas quickly.
Dot Grid Method Grid Square Method

Transect Method Polygon Method

Relief Displacement

Relief Displacement is the condition in which the image of a ground point on

a photograph is moved from the usual position it would have if the point
were on the datum. This movement or shift in position is due to the
elevation of the ground point with respect to the datum.

rh Where:
d =
H d = displacement of the object image on the
photograph due to relief (cm or mm)
r = radial distance from the principal point to the
displaced image point (cm or mm)
h = height of the object or its elevation above datum
(m)
H = flying height of the aircraft above datum (m)
REQUIRED PHOTOGRAPHIC
OVERLAPS
Vertical photographic coverage of
an area is normally taken as a
series of overlapping flight strips.
In fig. 50-2 is shown the usual
systematic arrangement of
exposing successive photographs.
Four adjacent flight line are
shown. Along a given flight line ,
photographs are taken at such
recurrence as to cause successive
photographs to overlap each other
by an amount which usually
depend on several factor. There is
also a need to overlap
photographs taken between
adjacent flight line.
PHOTOGRAPHIC
OVERLAPS
This overlap between
flight line is called the
side lap. In Fig. 50-3 are
shown successive
photographs taken along
adjacent flight lines
where the end lap is 60%
and the side lap is 25%.
END LAP
In order that a workable and an
accurate map could be prepared from
vertical aerial photographs it is
important that a complete
photographic coverage of the terrain is
obtained. This requires that the area
be covered by some amount of overlap
by each photograph when more than
one is taken in succession. The amount
of overlap of consecutive photographs
along a flight strip is called the forward
or end lap. End laps for stereopairs are
commonly expressed in percent

Where :
PE = percent end lap between successive photographs
(%)
G= Ground distance covered by a single exposure
and measured along the line of flight (m)
B= air base or distance between exposure
station (m)
SIDE LAP
The overlap between adjacent flight line is called side lap (see fig. 50-5). The
intended use of the photograph will usually dictate the required amount of side
lap. For most photogrammetric work, the side lap should preferably be about 30%
of the area covered by each photograph. In some instances side laps ranging from
10 to 60% have been employed. When a large percentage of side lap is required
the need to use the extreme edges of the photograph is eliminated. These edges
usually are of poor quality and have extreme amounts of distortion and relief
displacement.
In aerial photography a side lap is required to prevent gaps from occurring
between adjacent flight strips. These gaps are usually caused by different factors
and condition such as tilt, crab, flying height variations, and terrain variations. It
is quite difficult to keep the aircraft on a perfectly straight course throughout a
flight. This then makes it nearly impossible to attain exact uniformity in the
amount of side lap.
Where:
G-W
PS = (100%) PS = percent side lap between photographs taken at
G adjacent flight line (%)
G = ground distance covered by a single
exposure and measured normal to the line
of flight (m)
W = spacing between adjacent flight lines (m)
CRAB
Is defined as the angle of deviation from the flight line, or the aircraft’s
intended direction of heading, to its actual direction of travel. It is usually
caused by strong winds acting on the sides of the aircraft during flight.
Effect of crab on photograph coverage
DRIFT
Drift during aerial photography is caused by the failure of the pilot to maneuver
the aircraft along the predetermined flight line. It is often caused by strong
winds acting on the aircraft. The aircraft may drift to either side of the flight
line. Drift causes aloss in the photographic side lap on the side opposite of the
direction of drift.
Flight planning for aerial survey
The latest available base map of the project area is used for flight planning.
In order of preferences, the planner utilities:
County highway maps
U.S. geological survey quadrangle map
Army map service quadrangle maps, and
Photo-indexes, strips maps, or mosaics
Specifications for stereoscopic mapping embody complete stereoscopic
coverage of the project area with in the usable limit of the lens system of the
camera plotting combination. Standard specification for aerial mapping
photography usually cover allowable flight line and flight height variation,
spacing of photographs, allowable crab, and tilt, indexing and numbering of
photographic materials to be delivered by the contractor, and stipulations for
negates inspections and payment.
Example for flight design:
Area to be covered by a vertical aerial photography is 8km. by 4 km. The
focal length of the camera is 150 mm, with a 225 X 225 mm format. Scale is
1: 10,000 and the end lap required is 60% with a 30% side lap.
1. Allowing 60% end lap, what is the linear advance or the distance between
exposure for each successive photo in the project.
2. Allowing for 4 photos outside the project boundary along each flight line,
2 on the east and 2 on the west, how many aerial photographs will be
needed to cover the project area? Assume there are 3 flight lines in the
project.
3. Assuming that the aircraft used in photographing a project travels at a speed of
160 kph, how long should the intervalometer setting allow between exposures.

Solution:

1. Linear advance or distance between exposure for each successive photo in the
project:
Scale = Photo Distance/ Ground Distance
Ground Distance = Photo Distance/ Scale
=225 mm/ (1/10,000) = 2250 m.
With a 60% end lap, just 40% of the photo is left.
B = 40% X 2250m = 0.40 X 2250 m. = 900 m.

2. Number of aerial photographs needed to cover the project: Eastwest exent of

project is 8000 m (length of flight line); Linear advance = 900m.
No. of photos per flight line = (8,000/900) + 4 = 12.9 = 13
Total no. of photos = 13 X 3 flight lines = 39 photos.

. Time for the intervalometer setting between exposures

Speed of the aircraft = 160 km/ hr. X (1,000 m/ 1km) X (1 hr./ 3,600 sec) =
44.44m/s
Linear advance = 900 m.
Time = 900m / 44.44 mps = 20.25 sec. = 20 sec. between successive photographs
MOSAICS
A mosaic is an assembly of adjacent aerial photographs such that a continuous
pictorial display of the terrain is obtained. It is an assemblage of aerial
photographs the edges of which have been torn or cut and matched to form a
continuous photographic reproduction of a portion of the earth’s surface.

There are usually three types of mosaics:

1. Uncontrolled Mosaics- assembled with little or no ground survey.

2. Controlled Mosaics – oriented and scaled to horizontal to ground control.

3. Semi controlled Mosaics – other mosaics between controlled and

uncontrolled.
Depending upon the whether and how much horizontal control has been used in
constructing the mosaic. When little or no control is used, the mosaic is
uncontrolled. The simplest form of an uncontrolled mosaic is the index mosaic
(sometimes called index map), where overlapping photographs are placed down
consecutively and stapled to a board. It is used as an index for the mapping
project, usually to monitor its progress.

Controlled Mosaics are made both for pictorial display and the extraction of
some metric data, particularly for planning. The accuracy of mosaic depends on
minimizing the effects of relief and tilt displacements. Considering relief, the
smaller the area around the center of each photograph to be used in the mosaic,
the less is the relief displacement, which depends on the radial distance from
the center, r. Therefore, long focal length higher- altitude flying, and increased
overlap and sidelap are preferable for photography to be used in mosaic. With
regard to tilt displacement, the regular aerial photographs are usually replaced
by rectified prints produced by instruments called rectifiers. Rectification
produces an equivalent truly vertical photograph from the same exposure
station. Since the attitude of the camera also varies somewhat from one
photograph to another, the rectification process also allows for bringing all
rectified prints to same scale.
Although small central segments of the rectified prints are used, each is still a
perspective projection of the terrain. Therefore, horizontal control points are
utilized to control the mosaic. Such control is obtained either by ground survey
methods or by radial line triangulation. The control is plotted at the required
scale on the board on which the mosaic is to be assembled. Each control point
must also be identified on the photographic segment to be used. Only the
central portion of the photograph is used with its edges being brought to a
feather edge using sandpaper. Some small overlap is allowed between adjacent
segments. Each segment is then pasted on the board, matching control, if it
exists, on other details on adjacent segments as much as possible. Once all
segments are pasted and the assembly is finished, the mosaic is then
photographed by a large copy camera and reproductions are made at the
desired scale. Although the mosaic is an excellent product that offers wealth of
detail and information, it is only a map substitute and not the same as a
planimetric map since each small area would still contain perspective
distortions which may be minimized but not totally eliminated. A
semicontrolled mosaic is then classified between controlled and uncontrolled.

Radial line triangulation, plotting of planimetry, and preparing mosaics are

elementary procedures for obtaining horizontal information from aerial
photographs. Next, consider procedures that permit obtaining not only
horizontal but also vertical information.
APPLICATIONS OF MOSAICS:
1. Plotting the ground control points at the optimum locations to ensure the
required distribution and strength of the figure.
2. A map substitute for field checkpoint locations and approximate locations
of natural and cultural features. A mosaic is not an accurate map because
of relief displacement and minor variations in scale due to flying height
differences during the flight.
3. A medium for presenting ground data. Using standard photographic
procedures, a copy negative is produced. It is common practice to produce
a cronaflex ,which is Mylar transparency with an air photo background.
After photograph film has been processed each negative of a flight line is
numbered consecutively. The flight line number is also shown. As these
numbers are always shown in one corner of the photograph prints, it is useful
to construct a mosaic by laying down the photographs in order and matching
terrain features shown on each, so that all numbered information are visible.
Advant ages and Disadvant ages of Mosiacs

ADVANTEAGES OF MOSAIC:
The mosaic can be produced more rapidly, because the time requirements to
carry out the ground surveys and to plot the related information on a map
are extensive.
The mosaic is less expensive, even if the costs of acquiring air photos are
included.
The mosaic shows more terrain detail, as all natural and cultural features on
the ground surface show clearly on the air photo. Ground surveys are carried
out to locate only the features specified by the contract and or those that
can be shown by standard symbols in the legend.
For air photo interpretation purposes, subtle terrain characteristics such as
tone, texture, and vegetations must be visible. Therefore, the use of
mosaics purposes is essential.

DISADVANTAGES OF MOSAIC:
Horizontal scale measurements between any two points on a mosaic,
regardless of the degree of ground control employed, are limited accuracy
primarily due to relief displacement.
Mosaic are not topographic maps and therefore do not show elevations.