WHAT IS THEORY? 2.
Theory is to justify reimbursement to get funding and
Theory explains how some aspect of human behavior or
performance is organized. It thus enables us to make
predictions about that behavior.
The components of theory are concepts (ideally well
defined) and principles.
A concept is a symbolic representation of an actual
thing - tree, chair, table, computer, distance, etc.
Construct is the word for concepts with no physical
referent - democracy, learning, freedom, etc. Language
enables conceptualization.
A principle expresses the relationship between two or
more concepts or constructs.
In the process of theory development, one derives
principles based on one’s examining/questioning how
things/concepts are related.
Concepts and principles serve two important functions:
1) They help us to understand or explain what is going
on around us.
2) They help us predict future events (Can be causal or
correlational)
“That’s what theory is: the summary and synthesis of
what is known about a field. It is the reduction of our
knowledge to the basic ideas, presented in a way that
shows their underlying patterns and relationships.
“(Moore, 1991:2)
A theory is a related set of concepts and principles
- about a phenomenon
- the purpose of which is to explain or predict the
phenomenon
Importance:
1. Theory provides concepts to name what we observe
and to explain relationships between concepts. Theory
allows us to explain what we see and to figure out how
to bring about change. Theory is a tool that enables us
to identify a problem and to plan a means for altering
the situation.
support - need to explain what is being done and
demonstrate that it works - theory and research
3. Theory is to enhance the growth of the professional
area to identify a body of knowledge with theories from
both within and with out the area of distance learning.
That body of knowledge grows with theory and
research. Theory guides research.
“Theory and practice complement each other like
thinking and doing. A theory is a thought, an idea about
the way the world works that allows you to predict
what will happen if you do something. Practice is doing;
what happens when you do the thing. The better the
theory, the better the match between your thoughts
and predictions and what occurs in practice. Theories
are theoretical. Practice is practical.” – Dave Gray
quora.com
“The theory also helps us understand what we don’t
know and, therefore, is the only guide to research.
Relating to theory, it increases its ability to solve other
problems in different times and different places.”
(Moore, 1991: 2)
Development of theories
Theory is constantly revised as new knowledge is
discovered through research. Three stages of theory
development in any new ‘science’.
1) Speculative - attempts to explain what is happening.
2) Descriptive - gathers descriptive data to describe
what is really happening.
3) Constructive - revises old theories and develops new
ones based on continuing research.
Theory development process
1) Theory-practice-theory take existing theory in
education, apply to distance learning, develop new
theory
2) Practice-research-theory see what is happening in
distance learning, submit to research, develop theory
from results
3) Theory-theory-research/practice build on an initial
theory to develop a second theory, then apply and test
it
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD THEORIES
https://planspace.org/20170825-
characteristics_of_good_theories/
In Objectivity, Value Judgment, and Theory Choice, Kuhn
gives a partial list of characteristics that good theories
share:
Accurate: within its domain, consequences deducible
from a theory should be in demonstrated agreement
with the results of existing experiments and
observations
Consistent: internally (with itself) and with other
currently accepted theories applicable to related
aspects of nature
Broad scope: consequences should extend far beyond
the particular observations, laws, or subtheories it was
originally designed to explain
Simple: bringing order to phenomena that in its
absence would be individually isolated and, as a set,
confused
Fruitful: leading to new research findings; disclosing
new phenomena or previously unnoted relationships
among those already known
In The Beginning of Infinity, David Deutsch objects to
positivism or anti-realism, but has not so different
criteria to Kuhn. Deutsch focuses on these two:
Hard to vary: having no extraneous or non-explanatory
characteristics; possibly related to Kuhn's "consistent"
and "simple"
Reach: similar to Kuhn's "broad scope," "fruitful," and
possibly even "simple"
Deutsch mostly takes "accurate" as a given or obvious
requirement. Even this seemingly simple goal becomes
complicated when people disagree about "the results of
existing experiments and observations."
COMPONENTS OF A THEORY
1. Concept (is a term that has been given an
abstract generalized meaning..)
In administration, for instance, such as leadership,
informal organization, and satisfaction are given
generalized meanings which nevertheless are used
to describe behavior in the real world. In other
words, CONCEPTS are THOUGHTS!
Paul Davidson Reynolds “Theoretical Concepts
Advantages”
Researchers, theorists and practitioners can agree on
the meaning of such terms. Concept, being abstract and
general are ensured of their being independent of any
unique temporal or spatial setting.
2. Assumption is a statement that is accepted as
true without proof and without necessarily being self-
evident. This is because an assumption may be
definitional in character; that is, it is a definition of a
given word.
3. Generalization is a statement or proposition
that indicates the mutual relationship of two or more
concepts. A generalization links concepts in a
meaningful fashion. Generalizations are of four kinds,
(1) assumptions, (2) hypotheses, (3) principles and (4)
Laws.
PURPOSES
“Practice research, and theory are the cornerstones of
the nursing profession. The relationship of these three
cornerstones are reciprocal and cyclical. Clinical practice
generates research questions and knowledge for
theory. Research guides our practice and build
knowledge through theory development. Theory guides
research and improve practice. - Usama S. Saleh
“As we progress into the 21st century, nurse scholars,
scientists, researchers, and practitioners must place
theory-guided practice at the core of nursing. To
provide effective, efficient, and holistic care, nurses
must rely on sound theoretical principles to develop
and implement the plan of care.
https://www.pulsus.com/scholarly-articles/theory-
guided-practice-in-nursing.pdf
PARADIGMS IN NURSING
Among the nursing philosophers, Parse (1987) classified
the two major nursing perspectives as the totality and
the simultaneity paradigms. The totality paradigm views
the human-universe relationship as cause-effect in
nature. However, the simultaneity paradigm is
embedded in a view of the human-universe relationship
as a mutual process (Parse, 1992). Each of these
paradigms has influenced the perspectives of several
nursing theorists and there are many theories that fall
into these categories. The theories within the totality
paradigm consider body, mind, and spirit as separate
entities. They emphasize the practice modalities
focusing on the physiological, psychological, spiritual,
and social well-being of people. The human beings are
considered to be in a linear interaction with their
environment. On the other hand, the theories within
the simultaneity paradigm adheres to descriptions of
human beings as whole entities recognized through
patterns. The human beings are considered to be in
continuous and simultaneous interaction with their
environment (Parse, 1992).
1. Patricia Benner's From Novice to Expert
Dr Patricia Benner introduced the concept that expert
nurses develop skills and understanding of patient care
over time through a sound educational base as well as a
multitude of experiences. She proposed that one could
gain knowledge and skills ("knowing how") without ever
learning the theory ("knowing that").
2. Florence Nightingale is considered the first
nursing theorist. She believed the environment
had a strong influence on patient outcomes,
and many elements of her Environmental
Theory are still practiced today. There are 10
key aspects of the theory. They are:
- Patients should have clean air and a
temperature-controlled environment
- Patients should have access to direct sunlight
and not be subjected to unnecessary noise,
especially when sleeping
- Rooms should be kept clean
- Hospital facilities should be well-constructed
- Bedding should be changed and aired
frequently
- Patients should be kept clean and nurses should
wash hands frequently
- Patients should be offered a variety of scenery,
such as new books or flowers, to prevent
boredom
- Nurses should be positive but not offer false
hope to patients or make light of their illness
- Offer a variety of small meals instead of large
ones, and do not do patient care while patient
is eating as it is distracting
- Consider not only the individual patient but the
context of where he or she lives
3. The Nursing Need Theory was developed by
Virginia Henderson and was derived from her practice
and education. Henderson's goal was not to develop a
theory of nursing, but rather to define the unique
focus of nursing practice. The theory emphasizes the
importance of increasing the patient's independence
so that progress after hospitalization would not be
delayed. Her emphasis on basic human needs as the
central focus of nursing practice has led to further
theory development regarding the needs of the patient
and how nursing can assist in meeting those needs.
Henderson identifies three major assumptions in her
model of nursing. The first is that "nurses care for a
patient until a patient can care for him or herself,"
though it is not stated explicitly. The second assumption
states that nurses are willing to serve and that "nurses
will devote themselves to the patient day and night."
Finally, the third assumption is that nurses should be
educated at the college level in both sciences and arts.
The four major concepts addressed in the theory are
the individual, the environment, health, and nursing.
4. The Twenty-One Nursing Problems Theory was
developed by Faye Glenn Abdellah. Her model
of nursing was progressive for the time in that it
refers to a nursing diagnosis during a time in
which nurses were taught that diagnoses were
not part of their role in health care.
There are specific characteristics identifiable in
the Twenty-One Nursing Problems. The theory has
interrelated the concepts of health, nursing problems,
and problem-solving. Problem-solving is an activity that
is inherently logical in nature. The framework focuses
on nursing practice and individual patients.
Ten steps used to identify the patient's problems
1. Learn to know the patient
2. Sort out relevant and significant data
3. Make generalizations about available data
in relation to similar nursing problems
presented by other patients
4. Identify the therapeutic plan
5. Test generalizations with the patient and
make additional generalizations
6. Validate the patient's conclusions about his
nursing problems
7. Continue to observe and evaluate the
patient over a period of time to identify any
attitudes and clues affecting his behavior
8. Explore the patient's and family's reaction
to the therapeutic plan and involve them in
the plan
 9. Identify how the nurses feel about the holistic health care is central to the practice of caring in
patient's nursing problems nursing. She defines nursing as "a human science of
10. Discuss and develop a comprehensive persons and human health-illness experiences that are
nursing care plan mediated by professional, personal, scientific, esthetic
and ethical human transactions."
Eleven skills used in developing a treatment typology or
nursing care plan. The nursing process outlined in the model contains the
same steps as the scientific research process:
1. observation of health status
assessment, plan, intervention, and evaluation. The
2. skills of communication
assessment includes observation, identification, and
3. application of knowledge
review of the problem, as well as the formation of a
4. teaching of patients and families
hypothesis. Creating a care plan helps the nurse
5. planning and organization of work
determine how variables would be examined or
6. use of resource materials
measured, and what data would be collected.
7. use of personnel materials
Intervention is the implementation of the care plan and
8. problem-solving
data collection. Finally, the evaluation analyzes the
9. direction of work of others
data, interprets the results, and may lead to an
10. therapeutic use of the self
additional hypothesis.
11. nursing procedure
Watson's model makes seven assumptions:
The twenty-one nursing problems fall into three
categories: physical, sociological, and emotional needs 1. Caring can be effectively demonstrated and
of patients; types of interpersonal relationships practiced only interpersonally.
between the patient and nurse; and common elements 2. Caring consists of carative factors that result in
of patient care. the satisfaction of certain human needs.
3. Effective caring promotes health and individual
The Philosophy and Science of Caring has four major or family growth.
concepts: human being, health, environment/society, 4. Caring responses accept the patient as he or
and nursing. she is now, as well as what he or she may
Jean Watson refers to the human being as "a valued become.
person in and of him or herself to be cared for, 5. A caring environment is one that offers the
respected, nurtured, understood and assisted; in development of potential while allowing the
general a philosophical view of a person as a fully patient to choose the best action for him or
functional integrated self. Human is viewed as greater herself at a given point in time.
than and different from the sum of his or her parts." 6. A science of caring is complementary to the
science of curing.
Health is defined as a high level of overall physical, 7. The practice of caring is central to nursing.
mental, and social functioning; a general adaptive-
maintenance level of daily functioning; and the absence
of illness, or the presence of efforts leading to the
absence of illness.

Watson's definition of environment/society addresses

the idea that nurses have existed in every society, and
that a caring attitude is transmitted from generation to
generation by the culture of the nursing profession as a
unique way of coping with its environment.

The nursing model states that nursing is concerned with

promoting health, preventing illness, caring for the sick,
and restoring health. It focuses on health promotion, as
well as the treatment of diseases. Watson believed that