INTRODUCTION

Data collection is one of the most important stages in conducting a research. You can have
the best research design in the world but if you cannot collect the required data you will be
not be able to complete your project. In collecting data it is important to use procedures
which elicit high quality data, since the quality of any research study depends on the data
gathered and the quality is directly related to the data collection procedures.

DEFINITION
Data:

Data are the observable and measurable facts that provide information about the phenomenon
under study.

Data Collection:

The Data Collection is a process by which the researcher collects the information from all the
relevant sources to find answers to the research problem, test the hypothesis and evaluate the
outcome.

PURPOSE OF DATA COLLECTION:

The purposes of data collection are:-

 To obtain information
 To keep on record
 To make decisions about important issues
 To pass information on to others

TYPES OF DATA

Data are organized into two broad categories:

 Qualitative data
 Quantitative data

A. Qualitative Data:
 Qualitative data are mostly non-numerical and usually descriptive or nominal in
nature.
 The data collected are in the form of words and sentences. Often (not always), such
data captures feelings, emotions, or subjective perceptions of something.

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  Deals with descriptions. Data can be observed. Data cannot be measured e.g. –Colour
of body coat, feather colour in poultry etc.
 Qualitative approaches aim to address the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of a program and tend to
use unstructured methods of data collection to fully explore the topic. Qualitative
questions are open-ended.
 Qualitative data collection methods are characterized by the following attributes –
 They tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e.,
researchers may change the data collection strategy by adding, refining, or
dropping techniques or informants).
 They rely more heavily on interactive interviews; respondents may be
interviewed several times to follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts
or check the reliability of data
 They use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e.,
researchers rely on multiple data collection methods to check the authenticity
of their results).
 Generally their findings are not generalizable to any specific population;
rather each case study produces a single piece of evidence that can be used to
seek general patterns among different studies of the same issue.
 The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three
broad categories -
 In-depth interview
 Observation methods
 Document review.

B. Quantitative Data:
 Quantitative data is numerical in nature and can be mathematically computed.
 Quantitative data measure uses different scales, which can be classified as nominal
scale, ordinal scale, interval scale and ratio scale. Often (not always), such data
includes measurements of something.
 Deals with numbers. Data which can be measured. e.g. –height ,weight , length of the
animals
 Quantitative approaches address the ‘what’ of the program.

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  They use a systematic standardized approach and employ methods such as surveys
and ask questions.
 Quantitative approaches have the advantage that they are cheaper to implement, are
standardized so comparisons can be easily made and the size of the effect can usually
be measured.
 Quantitative data collection methods produce results that are easy to summarize,
compare, and generalize.
 Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include –
 Experiments/clinical trials.
 Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of
patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day).
 Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.
 Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and
telephone interviews, questionnaires etc.)
 In quantitative research (survey research), interviews are more structured than
in Qualitative research. In a structured interview, the researcher asks a
standard set of questions and nothing more. Face -to -face interviews have a
distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to establish rapport with potential
participants and therefore gain their cooperation.
 Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves
the researcher time and money. People are more truthful while responding to
the questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact
that their responses are anonymous.

SOURCES OF DATA

Information collected from different research studies generally depends on various sources. A
quality research study requires that highly reliable and valid data are collected; therefore,
diligence and application of the researcher can be of high importance. Sources of data
collection in different research studies largely depend on several factors, such as type of
research study, phenomenon under study, purpose of the study, etc.

Sources of data are generally categorized in two broad categories, namely

 Primary source

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  Secondary source

Primary sources:

 Primary data are directly collected from the research units, which may be individuals,
objects, programmes, or institutions.
 Primary data has not been changed or altered by human beings; therefore its validity
is greater than secondary data.

Importance of Primary Data:

 In statistical surveys it is necessary to get information from primary sources and work
on primary data. For example, the statistical records of female population in a country
cannot be based on newspaper, magazine and other printed sources.
 A research can be conducted without secondary data but a research based on only
secondary data is least reliable and may have biases because secondary data has
already been manipulated by human beings. One of such sources is old and secondly
they contain limited information as well as they can be misleading and biased.

Sources of Primary Data:

Following are some of the sources of primary data

a) Experiments: Experiments require an artificial or natural setting in which to perform

logical study to collect data. Experiments are more suitable for medicine,
psychological studies, nutrition and for other scientific studies. In experiments the
experimenter has to keep control over the influence of any extraneous variable on the
results.
b) Survey: Survey is most commonly used method in social sciences, management,
marketing and psychology to some extent. Surveys can be conducted in different
methods.
c) Questionnaire: It is the most commonly used method in survey. Questionnaires are a
list of questions either open-ended or close-ended for which the respondents give
answers. Questionnaire can be conducted via telephone, mail, live in a public area, or
in an institute, through electronic mail or through fax and other methods.
d) Interview: Interview is a face-to-face conversation with the respondent. In interview
the main problem arises when the respondent deliberately hides information otherwise

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 it is an in depth source of information. The interviewer can not only record the
statements the interviewee speaks but he can observe the body language, expressions
and other reactions to the questions too. This enables the interviewer to draw
conclusions easily.
e) Observations: Observation can be done while letting the observing person know that
s/he is being observed or without letting him know. Observations can also be made in
natural settings as well as in artificially created environment.

Advantages of Using Primary Data

 The investigator collects data specific to the problem under study.

 There is no doubt about the quality of the data collected (for the investigator).
 If required, it may be possible to obtain additional data during the study period.

Disadvantages of Using Primary Data

1. The investigator has to contend with all the hassles of data collection

 Deciding why, what, how, when to collect

 Getting the data collected (personally or through others)
 Getting funding and dealing with funding agencies
 Ethical considerations (consent, permissions, etc.)

2. Ensuring the data collected is of a high standard

 All desired data is obtained accurately, and in the format it is required in

 There is no fake/ cooked up data
 Unnecessary/ useless data has not been included.

3. Cost of obtaining the data is often the major expense in studies.

Secondary sources:

 Secondary data are collected from either internal or external secondary sources.
 It is collected by someone else for some other purpose (but being utilized by the
investigator for another purpose).

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Sources of Secondary Data:

a) External sources involve existing materials, such as published or unpublished records.

 Published records may include
 Journals
 Magazines
 Newspapers
 Government reports
 Statistical abstracts
 Census reports
 Constituents of mass communication
 Commission reports.
 Unpublished records may include
 Official records
 Patient records
 Thesis
 Dissertations
 Reports

b) Internal secondary sources also known as private documents may include

 Biographies
 Personal diaries
 Letters
 Memoires, etc.

Importance of Secondary Data:

 Sometimes it is difficult to obtain primary data; in these cases getting information

from secondary sources is easier and possible.
 Sometimes primary data does not exist in such situation one has to confine the
research on secondary data.
 Sometimes primary data is present but the respondents are not willing to reveal it in
such case too secondary data can suffice. For example, if the research is on the
psychology of transsexuals first it is difficult to find out transsexuals and second they

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 may not be willing to give information you want for your research, so you can collect
data from books or other published sources.
 A clear benefit of using secondary data is that much of the background work needed
has already been carried out. For example, literature reviews, case studies might have
been carried out, published texts and statistics could have been already used
elsewhere, media promotion and personal contacts have also been utilized. This
wealth of background work means that secondary data generally have a pre-
established degree of validity and reliability which need not be re-examined by the
researcher who is re-using such data.
 Secondary data can also be helpful in the research design of subsequent primary
research and can provide a baseline with which the collected primary data results can
be compared to. Therefore, it is always wise to begin any research activity with a
review of the secondary data.

Advantages of Using Secondary Data

 No hassles of data collection.

 It is less expensive.
 The investigator is not personally responsible for the quality of data (‘I didn’t do it’).

Disadvantages of Using Secondary Data

 The data collected by the third party may not be a reliable party so the reliability and
accuracy of data go down.
 Data collected in one location may not be suitable for the other one due variable
environmental factor.
 With the passage of time the data becomes obsolete and very old.
 Secondary data collected can distort the results of the research. For using secondary
data a special care is required to amend or modify for use.
 Secondary data can also raise issues of authenticity and copyright.

METHODS AND TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION

Methods and Tools of Data Collection are the strategies or system used to gather information
from participants, programmes, and other elements of the evaluation.

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 TYPES OF METHODS AND TOOLS FOR DATA COLLECTION

Type of Methods/Techniques Tools for data collection

1 Interview  Interview schedule
.  Opinionnaire
2 Questioning(self-report)  Questionnaire
.  Opinionnaire
 Attitude scales/Composite scales (eg:
Likert scale and Semantic differential
scale)
 Visual Analogue scale
3 Observation  Rating scales
.  Checklist
 Anecdotes
 Videotapes/Films
 Closed circuit TV
4 Biophysiological methods  In-vivo biophysiologic measurements
.  In-vitro biophysiologic measurements
5 Other methods  Projective technique
.  Q-sorts
 Vignettes

Factors influencing selection of methods of data collection:

1. The nature of phenomenon under study:

Each research phenomenon has its particular characteristics and, therefore, needs
different approaches and methods of data collection. For example, some phenomenon
can only be studied appropriately through observation, such as clinical practices or
processes in particular nursing procedures. Similarly, knowledge of a group of nurses
can only be assessed through questioning or interviews. Therefore, the nature of the
phenomenon under study significantly affects the selection of particular method of
data collection.

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2. Type of research subjects:
Data collection methods are also influenced by the type of subjects under study. For
example, data collection from physically or psychologically disabled subjects can be
done either by interviews or through observation, where data collection through
questionnaires is not feasible. On the other hand, if data has to be collected from
objects or institutions, questionnaires or interviews may not be possible at all, and
researchers will have to depend mostly on observation to collect relevant data.

3. The type of research study:

Quantitative and qualitative research studies need different methods of data
collection. For example, in qualitative research, more in-depth information is
required; therefore, focused group interviews or unstructured participatory interviews
are feasible for data collection, while for quantitative research studies, more
structured interviews, questioning, or observation is used for data collection.

4. The purpose of the research study:

The purpose of the study also influences the choice of the methods of data collection,
such as in a study conducted with the purpose of the exploration of phenomenon, in-
depth interviews may be needed for data collection, while studies conducted with
purpose of description or correlation of study variables may need more structured
methods of data collection.

5. Size of the study sample:

When a study is conducted on a small sample, interviews or direct observation may be
possible, while these methods can be tedious for large samples. For larger samples,
questionnaires can be better and more preferable methods of data collection.
Interviews and observation methods will also be cost-effective and easy for smaller
groups, while questionnaires will be convenient, easier, and cost-effective methods of
data collection for larger samples.

6. Distribution of the target population:

If target population is spread in a large geographical area, it will not be possible to
carry out interviews or observation, and therefore, mailed questionnaires may be a
better option, which will be more convenient and cost-effective in such conditions.

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7. Time frame of the study:
If a research is conducted for a long time, it may permit the researcher to use the less-
structured methods of data collection to gain in-depth information, while short time-
frame studies may not allow the researcher to use the unstructured methods of data
collection, where he/she gets very little time for data collection and analysis.
Therefore, structured methods of data collection are used more for short-term research
designs.

8. Literacy level of the subjects:

Illiterate subjects put constraints on the use of self-responding methods of data
collection, such as questionnaires. For illiterate subjects, interviews conducted in
native language is one of the few possible methods of data collection used, while
more varied and numerous options in methods of data collection are available for
literate subjects.

9. Availability of resources and manpower:

Some of the methods of data collection require more quantities of resources and
manpower, such as conducting interviews and observation compared to the use of
questionnaires. Therefore, availability of resources and manpower also affects the
selection of methods of data collection.

10. Researcher's knowledge level and competence:

The researcher's knowledge and competence also affect the selection of methods of
data collection; for example, conducting an interview and observation may require
special social and psychologic knowledge, skills, and competence, while the use of
questionnaires may not demand these skills; however, for the development and
construction of a good questionnaire, good writing skills may be required.

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Criteria of Evaluation/Assessment of Data Collection Methods:

The appropriateness of the data collection method may be evaluated or assessed by using
following criteria.

 Accuracy and completeness of data collection: Researcher must ensure that data
collection methods used will yield accurate and complete data to answer research
questions or test hypotheses.
 Compatibility of educational level, sociocultural values, and beliefs of the subjects.
 Cost-effectiveness and speed in data collection procedure.
 In accordance with of phenomenon, type, purpose, time frame, and resources
available for the study.
 Further, following criteria may be considered while evaluating or assessing the
method for data collection:
 Is data collection method complete in all the aspects of the study variables?
 Are data collection methods thoroughly described?
 Are data collection methods in accordance with research questions/hypotheses
to be tested?
 Are validity and reliability of data collection methods established?
 Is the number of methods used for data collection sufficient for complete
coverage of research data or are additional methods required for data
collection?
 Are anonymity and confidentiality assured?
 Are instruments described in detail?
 Were the criterion measures or scoring methods clearly established?

CONCEPT OF DATA COLLECTION

The aim of collecting data is to transform the data into meaningful information, in order to
identify and measure variables, describe behaviour, and compute empirical evidences that are
objective, reliable and valid.

There is a pertinent question that always strikes in the researcher’s mind: How to determine
what data are to be collected? Therefore, data collection should aim at identification of
observable and measurable facts or variables that would relate to these indicators. The
questions that need to be answered are: What are the indicators? How will they be measured
or recorded? What is the analysis planned?

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The five “questions” of data collection are:

1. What data are to be collected?

Decision is made about the type of data being sought. Study decision depends to
measure knowledge, attitude or behaviors. The type of data being sought, will also
govern the how, who, where and when of the data collection process. The answers to
all of these questions are interrelated, and it may be difficult to determine which
question should be answered first. The main consideration in data collection should be
the type of data needed to answer the research question.

2. How data are to be collected?

Research instrument is needed to collect the data. Choosing a data collection
instrument is a major decision that should be made only after careful consideration of
the possible alternatives.

3. Who will collect data?

Sometimes, scientific investigation involves team of researchers for data collection.
Sometimes, data collectors are paid for their services. If the researcher is going to
collect the data, it is easy. If more persons are involved, assumption must be made
that the data are being collected in the same manner. Training is needed for data
collectors.

4. From where the data will be collected?

Setting is very important. Optimum conditions should be sought. If questionnaire are
being used, researcher might ask respondents to complete the questionnaire while the
researcher remains in same area. If subjects are tired or environmental conditions is
not, adequate, the answers that are provided may not be valid.

5. When is the data to be collected?

The determination is made about the time. For data collection how long data
collection will take 'to answer this question, trial run of the procedure is done by the
researcher. If a questionnaire is used, it is pretested with proper subjects similar to the
potential research subjects. If it takes too long for completion, decision may be made
to revise the instrument.

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PROCEDURE OF DATA COLLECTION

Data collection is a long and tedious process, which is generally done by researchers
themselves in small size studies; however, in large size studies, data collectors are used by
the investigators for data collection. Each study has different type of data to be collected and
involves several steps in data collection.

Data collection procedure involves following steps:

1. Operationally defining the data to be collected:

 It is essential for researcher to identify and clearly define the data to be
collected in the study
 Researcher must identify the nature of data to be collected whether they are
quantitative or qualitative in nature.
 Identifying the nature of data to be collected and operationally defining
them help the researcher in easy and effective selection of methods and
instruments of data collection.

2. Selecting appropriate methods of data collection:

 After clearly identifying and defining the data to be collected; the next step of data
collection is to select appropriate methods of data collection.
 There are different methods of data collection available such as self-reporting
methods (questionnaire, composite scales), interviews, observations and so on.
 Researcher has to select most suitable methods of data collection based on the
nature of data to be collected.

3. Selecting or developing data collection instrument(s):

 Once researcher makes a choice about most appropriate method of data collection,
the next step is to identify an existing tool(s) for data collection, which can be
used for present study.
 In case, the existing tool(s) does not exactly suit the present data collection needs,
it can be modified based on the needs of the present study.
 If no existing suitable tool is available for data collection for the present study;
then researcher has to develop a new tool(s) for data collection.

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  New tool(s) may be developed with help of literature review and experts.
 The modified tool(s) or newly developed tool(s) has to be given to experts for
ensuring the validity of data collection tool(s).

4. Try-out of data collection instrument(s) and procedure:

 Researcher either chose a data collection instrument, modify an existing tool or
develop a new data collection tool and decide the data collection methodology,
which need to be tried-out to identify practical difficulties may be faced in data
collection procedure and modifications are made accordingly in the data collection
instrument, as well as data collection methodology.
 The data collected during try-out are also used for calculating the reliability of
modified or newly developed instrument and further changes and retry-out may be
carried out based on calculated reliability score.

5. Developing data collection supportive forms and procedure:

 Once the researcher has a valid and reliable data collection instrument ready, he or
she also prepares the supportive forms needed for the data collection such as
informed consent, administrative permission letters, list, contact details of
participants and so on.

6. Training of data collectors:

 Investigators involve data collectors in most of the large studies.
 These data collectors need different levels of training based on their prior
experience of data collection.
 Training usually covers both general procedures (such as how to conduct a data
collection interview) and the specific to particular study (such as how to
administer particular specialized data collection instruments).
 A training manual is used for training of data collectors, which includes
background information of study (introduction, aim, objectives, hypotheses,
methodology of study), general instructions of data and all the copies of data
collection instruments and other supportive forms.

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7. Inform the local authority for data collection and obtain due permissions:
 Before actual data lection begins, it is the responsibility of the investigator to
inform the local authority in command and obtain their permission for data
collection, so that their support and cooperation can be obtained.

8. Data collection and data management:

 The final step in the procedure of data collection is data collection and data
management.
 This is the most crucial step of data collection procedure where consent is
obtained and data are collected carefully and if needed changes are made in data
collection methodologies based on ongoing needs of data collection procedure.
 For example, a researcher planned to undertake a phenomenological study of
pregnancy experience of women in prison, had obtained permission to tape record
interviews with pregnant inmates. When time came to begin the interviews, the
warden informed her that prison rules prohibited her from taking taped interviews
from the prison. The researcher needs to come up with an alternate plan of
recording data such as using hard-bound notebooks for recording experience of
inmates.

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Sequence of data collection plan in quantitative study:

Determine what data need to be gathered

Are data needs extensive?

Prioritize the list of needs

What type of measures should be used for each variable (self-report, etc.)?

Are there existing instruments to capture the full conceptual definition of the variables?

Will the instrument yield high Do you have the skills and resources to
quality data? develop a new instrument?

Are the instruments Can the instruments be Develop Raise

suitable in terms of cost, adopted to yield more pretest/new problem
availability, norms, etc. suitable measures measure

Is permission to use the instrument needed?

Obtain permission Arrange measures in an appropriate sequence

Pretest entire instrument package

Make necessary revisions to instruments or sequencing

Develop data collection forms and protocols: develop data management procedures

Can data be collected by research alone?

Identify and hire appropriate data collectors

Train data collectors

Collect data Manage data according to data management plan

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 CONCLUSION

Data collection is a very demanding job which needs thorough planning, hard work, patience,
perseverance and more to be able to complete the task successfully. Data collection starts
with determining what kind of data required followed by the selection of a sample from a
certain population. After that, you need to use a certain instrument to collect the data from the
selected sample. The data collection component of research is common to all fields of study
including physical and social sciences, humanities, business, etc. While methods vary by
discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same.

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 JOURNAL ABSTRACT

Data Collection Procedures for School-Based Surveys Among Adolescents: The Youth
in Europe Study

Alfgeir Logi Kristjansson, Jon Sigfusson, Dora Sigfusdottir, John P. Allegrante

September 2013, Journal of School Health

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Collection of valid and reliable surveillance data as a basis for school
health promotion and education policy and practice for children and adolescence is of great
importance. However, numerous methodological and practical problems arise in the planning
and collection of such survey data that need to be resolved in order to ensure the validity of
the data and to maximize the response rate without being prohibitively costly.

METHOD: This article builds on a 15-yearlong experience of such annual data collections in
Iceland and describes the preparation, process, and collection of data that provide a common
methodologic framework for the school-based survey, Youth in Europe, a population-based
survey of 14- to 16-year-old adolescents, being collected across 18 European cities now
participating in the European Cities Against Drugs (ECAD) program.

RESULTS: We identified 11 critical steps for developing and implementing the surveys in
light of the recent literature on the preparation and implementation practices in school-based
data collection among adolescents.

CONCLUSION: Limiting the disruption of daily operations in schools while at the same time
ensuring both quality and clarity of data collection procedures in school-based surveys are of
paramount importance for researchers, school personnel, and students.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Denise F Polit, “Nursing Research Principles and Methods”, 7th edition, Lippincott
Williams and Wilkins
2. Denise F Polit, “Essentials of Nursing Research”, 7th edition, Lippincott Williams and
Wilkins
3. Mamita Dey, “A guide to Nursing Research and Biostatistics”, 1st edition, 2016, Jaypee
4. Rose, Catherine, “Foundations of Nursing Research”,7th edition, 2018, Pearsons
5. Sharma K Suresh, “Nursing Research and Statistics”, 3rd edition,2018, Elsevier

Journal Reference:

1. Kristjansson, Alfgeir & Sigfusson, Jon & Sigfusdottir, Inga & Allegrante, John. (2013).
Data Collection Procedures for School-Based Surveys Among Adolescents: The Youth in
Europe Study. The Journal of school health. 83. 662-7. 10.1111/josh.12079.

Internet Reference:

1. http://www.prm.nau.edu/prm447/methods_of_data_collection_lesson.htm
2. https://www.slideshare.net/ChinmayRout/research-methodology-data-collection
3. https://www.slideshare.net/abhijeetbirari/data-collection-in-research-64721940

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