Lecture 1:

DEFINITION OF
CONCEPTS, VARIABLES AND
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
 Statistics

 The branch of mathematics that deals with the

collection, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of numerical data;
- making inferences or generalizations about
the population characteristics from data
gathered from sample

- making it possible to predict the likelihood of

events from data
 Data and Variable

 Data are a set of qualitative and quantitative

values; made up of variables
 A variable is any thing that can be measured;
something that can take different values between
individuals or in the same individual at different
time points
 Typically the result of measurements
 “Statistics is the science of data. This involves
collecting, classifying, summarizing, organizing,
analyzing, and interpreting numerical information.”
(McClave & Sincich, 2009).

“Concerned with the presentation of

information in a convenient, usable, and
understandable form.” (Diekhoff, 1992)

“ Concerned with the collection, organization

and analysis of numerical facts or observations. Its
purpose is to describe and draw inferences about
numerical properties of a group of population.”
(Mendelhall & Ott, 1972 cited in Leonard, 1976).
“Statistics is a way of reasoning

along with a collection of tools and

methods
designed to help us understand
the world.”
- Deveaux, et al, (2009)
 Statistics: General Classifications
 Descriptive Statistics – procedures for summarizing,
graphing and, in general, describing quantitative
information.
 Percentage, arithmetic mean, measures of
dispersions, simple correlations, etc.

 Inferential Statistics – procedures that allow the

drawing of conclusions and generalizations about the
population on the basis of data gathered from a sample.
 Chi-square tests, t tests, ANOVA procedures,
regression analyses, etc.
 STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA

determining the appropriate statistical

techniques to be used in analyzing the
collected information/data and in testing
hypothesis
 Sample research variables/topics where
descriptive statistics could be used

• average I.Q. of students

• incidents of violent behavior among students
• cheating behavior
• prevalence of health-risk behaviors among adolescents
• socio-economic status and depression among
adolescents
• cases on nullification of marriage
• death anxiety among older adults
• organizational commitment and job satisfaction of
workers
• development of quality standards framework for
frontline services
 Sample research variables/topics where
inferential statistics could be used
• Anxiety, coping styles and depression
• Relationship between emotional intelligence and
intelligence quotient
• Effect of aerobic exercise training on brain structure
and psychological well-being in young adults
• Work-family initiatives and organizational commitment
of employees
• Impact of training on performance
• Effect of violent video games on aggression among
male children
• Self-esteem and job performance: the moderating role
of self-esteem contingencies
• Magnetic resonance imaging and prediction of outcome
in patients with major depressive disorder
Descriptive Research
 Descriptive Research
Participation in Youth Activities and Substance Use

Number of Activities
Demographic
No 1-3 4-6 7 or More
Characteristics
Activities Activities Activities Activities
Age Group
12 or 13 5.8 26.4 32.2 35.7
14 or 15 7.6 27.0 32.0 33.4
16 or 17 9.5 27.9 30.0 32.6

Gender
Male 8.5 30.4 32.8 28.3
Female 6.7 23.7 30.0 39.6

Family Income
Less Than Php20,000 13.0 33.7 30.5 22.9
Php20,000 to Php49,999 9.4 30.7 31.5 28.4
Php50,000 to Php74,999 6.1 25.1 31.4 37.4
Php75,000 or More 3.6 20.7 31.8 43.9
 Descriptive Research
Participation in Youth Activities and Substance Use
 Sample Table of Percentile Norms

Raw Score f cf PR
50 3 40 99.9
45 7 37 92.5
40 5 30 75
35 5 25 62.5
30 6 20 50
25 4 14 35
20 5 10 25
15 4 5 12.5
10 1 1 2.5
Correlation and
prediction
 Correlation and prediction
Example:
• A researcher wish to determine the extent to which
personal, socio-economic and psychological factors
influence the academic performance of BS Psychology
students.

Personal
Attributes
Academic
SES
performance
factors

Psychological
factors
Basic Considerations in Data Analysis

 Research problems, e.g.

 Demographic characteristics?
 Correlation?
 Difference?
 Forecasting? Prediction?
 Levels of Measurement
 Nominal? Ordinal? Interval/Ratio?
 Number of Samples
 One sample? Two-sample? k-sample?
 Type of Samples
 Independent? Dependent or Correlated?
 Measurement
 is the assignment of numbers to objects or
events (Birion & De Jose, 1998).

 Typology (developed
by American
psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens in
1946):
 Nominal
 Ordinal
 Interval
 Ratio
 Levels of Measurement
 Nominal – differentiates between items or subjects
based on categories
 gender: male, female

 civil status: single, married

 Religion: Christian, Muslim, Buddhist, Jews, etc

 employment status: permanent/regular, temporary,

casual, contractual/job-order, co-terminus, part-time
 political orientation

 Organization: profit, non-profit

 health profession (medical doctor, psychologist,

social worker)
 psychological disorder (schizophrenia, anxiety disorder,
mood disorder, etc)
 Cont: Measurement Scale
 Ordinal – allows ranking of objects or observations;
data consisting of spectrum of values

 performance rating: (poor to excellent)

 brand preference (1st choice, 2nd choice, so on)
 educational attainment
 position
 salary grade
 university rankings
 socio-economic class
 Cont: Measurement Scale
 Interval – allows for the degree of difference
between observations; equal distance:

 age
 scholastic aptitude test scores
 height
 time of day
 length
 Cont: Measurement Scale
 Ratio – has fixed intervals between scores, and has
a fixed zero point, which means that the values can
be compared with each other with zero as a
reference point.

 amount of savings;
 crime incidence;
 number of convictions
 bacteria in a specimen
 number of passers in the board exams
 number of children
 years of work experience
 sales figures
Measurement Properties of Measurement
Scale
Categorical Hierarchical Equal- True Zero-
(Classification) (Rank-order) distance point

Nominal √ x x x

Ordinal √ √ x x

Interval √ √ √ x

Ratio √ √ √ √
 Number of Sample

One–sample – procedures used to test statistics for only

one sample. Ex: a group of students; a group of employees

Two–sample – two samples or groups of subjects.

Ex: between male and female students; between regular and
irregular students; between students and teachers; between single
and married employees; between tenured and non-tenured
employees

k–sample – refers to statistical tools used for more than

two samples. Ex: multi-sector or multiple stakeholder groups;
students across various courses; between students, teachers, alumni,
administrators; across industry types, e.g. manufacturing, health,
food products, hospitality, business processing, banking and finance,
etc.
 Types of Samples
Independent Samples – between
subjects; mutually exclusive groups
 Difference in the motives for teaching between
the male teachers and female teachers
 Difference in study habits across students from

various programs
 Quality of education of PUPSPC as assessed by

school officials, professors, external alumni,

students
Difference in the marital satisfaction among
married young adults, middle-aged adults, and
older adults
 Types of Samples
Dependent / Related / Paired Samples –
within subjects; two or more sets of data are
either correlated or coming from the same
sample.
 Same subjects, repeated measurements. E.g.
studies on attitudinal change; measuring difference
in the achievement scores before and after
intervention
 Correlated subjects. E.g. Difference in the
marital satisfaction between husbands and wives;
relationship between IQ scores and performance
rating
 Keep in mind…

 What are the levels of measurement of

the variables of interest?

 How many groups do you have?

 Are the groups (or samples)

independent or dependent (paired)?
 KINDS
OF VARIABLES
 DISCRETE VS. CONTINUOUS

DISCRETE VARIABLE – CONTINUOUS

made up of distinct and VARIABLE – can be
separate units or expressed by a large
categories; it can only (often infinite) number
take on a finite value. of measures.

 Dichotomous  Dichotomized
Variable – a Variable – a
categorical variable that continuous variable
has been divided into that has been divided
two categories (e.g. into two categories
pass and fail). (e.g. poor and not
poor).
 INDEPENDENT VS. DEPENDENT

Independent Variable –
the presumed cause in a Independent
study; a variable that can Variable
be used to predict or
explain the values of
another variable.

Dependent Variable –
the presumed effect in a
study; the variable whose Dependent
values are predicted by Variable
the independent variable.
 Effect of Computer-Aided
Instruction on Achievement Effect of Music on Mood
in Mathematics among
Grade Four Pupils
Music
(classical, pop, rock)
Computer-Aided
Instruction

Achievement in
Mood
Mathematics
 MEDIATING VS. MODERATING

 Mediating Variable – a variable that accounts for

the relation between the predictor and the criterion; it
explains the relation, or provides the causal link
between other variables (also known as intervening
variables).

X Y
Interactional justice as a mediator Pain, physical activity and the
of the relationship between pay mediating effect of self-
for performance and job efficacy among athletes
satisfaction

Pay
Self-efficacy

Interactional
Justice
(participation
in pay Physical
systems) Pain
activity

Job-Satisfaction
 MEDIATING VS. MODERATING

 Moderating Variable – a moderator variable is a

third variable that influences or “moderates” the
relation between an independent and a dependent
variable. The effect of a moderating variable is
characterized statistically as an interaction.

X Y
 Moderating A moderator may
Variable – a variable be qualitative (gender,
that influences or education, etc.) or
“moderates” the relation quantitative (IQ level,
between two other age, income, etc.)
variables and thus variable that affects the
produces an interaction direction and/or
effect; the presence of strength of relationship
this third variable (whether causal or
modifies the original correlational) between
relationship between the an independent (or
independent variable and predictor) and a
the dependent variable. dependent (or
criterion) variables.
 Intelligence
Stress D
Computer- Other E
Gender School
Aided P
Instruction Factors
R
Social E
Support
S
S
I
Achievement in Stress + O
Mathematics Social N
support
Alternate path diagram
representations of the
moderation model.

X= the independent variable;

Y= the dependent variable;
Z= the moderator variable
XZ= the product of X and the
moderator variable
β1 = the effect of X on Y
β2 = the effect of Z on Y
β3 = the effect of XZ on Y.

Fairchild, A. J. & MacKinnon, D. P. (2009).

A general model for testing mediation and
moderation effects. Prevention Science,
10(2): 87-99.
 Lecture 2:

Sampling Techniques and

Sample Size Determination
 POPULATION, SAMPLE, AND SAMPLING DESIGN

Population – a collection of sampling units

(events, persons, institutions, or other
subjects of study) that one wants to describe
or about which one wants to generalize.
Sample – a subset of the population from which
observations are actually obtained, and from
which conclusions about the population will
be drawn.
Sampling Design – a pattern, arrangement or
methods used for selecting a sample of
sampling units from the target population.
 Example 1:

Quality engineers at a computer manufacturing company

have the responsibility for assessing the quality of outgoing
products. One product of interest is a certain type of microchip
produced and sold to other computer manufacturing firms in
shipments of tens of thousands of items. To assess the quality of
current shipment of 15,000 units, inspectors randomly obtain 100
units from the shipment and subject them to various quality
tests and measurements.

sampling unit: microchip

target population: shipment of 15,000 units
sampling design: random selection
sample size: 100
 Example 2:

A clinical psychologist would like to develop intervention to

reduce the incidence of delinquent behavior of inmates in a correctional
facility. To draw a rational and evidence-based intervention, she decided
to conduct a research focusing on the factors related to delinquent
behavior. She identified personality traits as one of these factors and
decided to administer the MMPI to a sample of inmates who have been
meted disciplinary action by the institution. Her respondents are the
female inmates who have records of involvement in misdemenor while
incarcerated and were subjected to disciplinary action.

sampling unit: female inmate

target population: all female inmates who have record of
delinquent cases and were subjected to
disciplinary action
sampling design: purposive sampling
 Census: the process of obtaining observations from every
sampling unit in the population

Why sample?

 Cost: Enormous expense may be required, and funds may not

be sufficient to carry out a census

 Time: Census may be financially feasible but may take too long
to complete, which may seriously reduce the value of the results

 Precision: It is usually difficult to get accurate information

from each individual in the population. It is preferable to take a
small sample and ensure that accurate information is obtained from
each individual in the sample.

 Feasibility: Census is not always feasible. E.g. destructive

testing
Population and Sample
Sampling Techniques
 Simple Random

• lottery / “fish bowl”

• computer-generated random telephone numbers

Systematic Sampling

• Interval sampling

• Every kth element

Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling
 Proportionate Sampling

• used when population is composed of several

subgroups that are vastly different in number

• the number of participants from each subgroup is

determined by the number relative to the entire
population
 Convenience Sampling

• opportunity sampling (e.g. surveying people in the

shopping center)
• volunteer sampling (e.g. advertising to request
individuals/groups to participate in the study)

Purposive Sampling

• judgment or authoritative sampling

•

• handpicking individuals from the population based

on the researcher‟s knowledge and judgment
 Quota Sampling
• similar to proportionate, although participants
where not randomly selected from the population
• In case of stratified sampling, judgment is used to
select the subjects or units from each subgroup of a
specified population

Snowball Sampling

• chain sampling or referral sampling

• Used in hidden populations which are difficult for the
researcher to access
 Lecture 3:

Hypothesis Testing
Two distinct statistical functions

Descriptive Statistics – procedures for

summarizing, organizing, graphing, and in
general, describing quantitative information.

Inferential Statistics – Statistics that allow us

to draw conclusions or inferences from data.
Usually this means coming to conclusions
(such as estimates, generalizations,
decisions, or predictions) about a population
on the basis of data describing a sample.
 What is Statistical Hypothesis Testing?
 Hypothesis – something that is yet to be
proven true; a statement about the population
parameter or about the population distribution
that we assume.

 Statistical hypothesis testing:

 a method of making decisions using data

from a scientific investigation.
used as basis for making statement(s)
regarding unknown population parameter
values based on sample data.
a claim about a parameter using evidence
(data in a sample)
 Elements of Hypothesis Testing

In making statistical inferences it is customary

to make and follow a decision model. Such
model consists of:

 the null hypothesis (H0)

 the alternate hypothesis (H1)
 the level of significance that is to be used in
making statistical test, alpha
 and the decision rule
 Basics of Hypothesis Testing

Null hypothesis (H0) – an „assertion

about the value of the population
parameter; we assert that it is true unless
we have statistical evidence to conclude
otherwise.
Alternate hypothesis (H1) – a
negation of the null hypothesis.

 As H0 and H1 assert exactly opposite

statement, only one of them can be true.
 Type-I and Type-II Errors

Decision based on sample

Accept H0 Reject H0

H0 is No error Type I
State of true Correct Decision Wrong Decision
population
H0 is Type II No error
false Wrong Decision Correct Decision
 Significance Level

 Significance level sets a limit to the p value

(i.e., the probability of Type I error) below
which H0 will be rejected.
 The p value gives the null hypothesis the
maximum benefit of doubt.
 The probability limit for acceptable Type I
error is denoted by α.
 Depending on the problem, usually the p-
values for rejecting H0 are less than 0.1,
0.05, 0.01, etc., most common being 0.05
(5%).
 Consider the cost or damage of making a
mistake in accepting or rejecting null
hypothesis.
 Choose smaller Type I Error when the
cost of rejecting the maintained hypothesis
is high (e.g., drug/medicine experiment)
 Choose larger Type I Error when you
have an interest in changing the status quo
(e.g., testing effectiveness of an
intervention; deciding to adopt a new HR
program or policy, business policy;
efficiency of a new software)
 Critical Region or Rejection Region

 The area on the probability curve that marks the

probability of making type I error.
 If the test statistic falls in this region, it is
reasonable to reject the hypothesis.
 The remaining area under the probability curve
is known as the acceptance region.
 The critical region may be represented in two
ways:
 one-tailed
 two-tailed
 Two-tailed

 Non-directional hypothesis
Ho: π = πo
Ha : π ≠ πo

 For example, if
you are testing at the
5% significance level
in two-tail, then the
critical region is ±
1.96 standard
deviations above and
below the mean.
 Z Critical Values

Level of 2-tailed 1-tailed

Confidence α critical critical
1 - α value value
90% 10% 1.645

95% 5% 1.96 1.645

98% 2% 2.33

99% 1% 2.575
 One-tailed

 Directional hypothesis

Right-tailed Left-tailed
Ho: π = πo Ho : π = πo
Ha : π > πo Ha : π < πo
 Level of Significance
and the Rejection Region
H0: m 1  m2 a Critical
H1: m 1 < m2 Value(s)

Rejection 0
Regions a
H0: m 1  m2
H1: m 1 > m2
0
a/2
H0: m 1 = m2
H1: m 1  m2
0
 Hypothesis Testing Procedure
1. State the null hypothesis and alternate
hypothesis.
2. Choose test statistic.
3. Specify level of significance α.
4. Decide on a sample size.
5. Define the critical region in terms of test
statistic.
6. Compare the observed/calculated value of the
test statistic with the critical value and decide to
accept or reject the null hypothesis.
MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
DECISION MATRIX
 SAMPLE STATISTICAL TOOLS DECISION MATRIX
FOR TESTING SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE
Sample Scale
Number Type Nominal Ordinal Interval/Ratio
 Chi-square test of  Kolmogorov-Smirnov  t test
One goodness-of-fit test of goodness-of-  z test
sample  Binomial test fit
 Runs test
 Chi-square test of  Mann-Whitney U test  t test for independent
Inde- independence (for  Kolmogorov-Smirnov sample
Two- pendent large sample) for two samples
sample  Fisher’s Exact test (for  Wald-Wolfowitz for
small sample) two samples
Depen-  McNemar Test  Wilcoxon Signed-  t test for related sample
dent (for dichotomous data) Rank Test  Sandler’s A test

Inde-  Chi-square test of  Kruskal-Wallis H test  F test one-way ANOVA

pendent independence  Jonckheere-Terpstra  F test two-way ANOVA
k- test (for factorial design)
sample
Depen-  Cochran Q test (for  Friedman ANOVA  F test ANOVA for
dent dichotomous data) repeated treatments
 SAMPLE STATISTICAL TOOLS DECISION MATRIX
FOR TESTING SIGNIFICANCE OF RELATIONSHIP/ASSOCIATION
Scale
Scale Nominal Ordinal Interval/Ratio
 Chi-square test of independence  Theta (for a dichotomous • Point-biserial
Nominal  Phi-coefficient (for dichotomous and ordered categorical correlation
categories) variables)
 Cramer’s V (for non-dichotomous
categories)
 Tetrachoric correlation (for
dichotomized categories)
 Polychoric correlation coefficient
(for k x k contingency table).
 Contingency coefficient (for k
categories)
 Spearman rank order • Spearman rank
correlation coefficient order
Ordinal
 Kendall’s Tau correlation
 Kendall’s Coefficient of
Concordance (for k samples)
 Somer’s d (for ordered
categorical variables)
Interval/  Pearson Product
Ratio Moment
Correlation
Coefficient
 References

Apte, D. P. (2009). Statistical tools for managers using MS

Excel. New Delhi: Excel Books
Best, J. W. (1981). Research in education. 4th ed. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Birion, J. C. & De Jose, E. G. (1998). Glossary of statistical
terms for statisticians, researchers, and beginners.
Quezon City: Rex Bookstore, Inc.
Birion, J. C., De Jose, E. G., Dayrit, B., & Mapa, C. M. (2005).
Thesis and dissertation writing without anguish.
Valenzuela: Mutya Publishing House, Co.
Diekhoff, G. (1992). Statistics for the social and behavioral
sciences: univariate, bivariate, multivariate. Wm. C.
Brown Publishers
Leonard II, W. M. (1976). Basic social statistics. New York:
West Publishing Co.
 Lecture 4:

SPSS Applications
 Parameter vs. Statistics

Parameters – characteristics of the

population (numerical descriptive
measures of a population).

Statistics – characteristics of a
sample (numerical descriptive
measures computed from a sample).
 What is SPSS?
 A computer application that supports statistical analysis of
data
 1968: the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)
 1975: incorporated as SPSS, Inc.
 Statistical Products and Service Solutions
 2009: changed product name from SPSS to Predictive
Analytics Software (PASW).
 2010: acquired by IBM Corporation for US$1.2 billion, and
changed the name of the software to IBM SPSS Statistics.
 2014: IBM SPSS Statistics version 22.
 What is SPSS?
 widely used program in the social sciences; used also by health
researchers, survey companies, government, education
researchers, marketing organizations, data miners, and others.
 Perhaps, the most user-friendly statistical software
 Statistics included in the base software:
 Descriptive statistics: Cross tabulations, Frequencies, Percentages,
MCT, Mvar
 Correlations: bivariate, partial
 Comparing means: t-tests, ANOVA
 Generalized Linear Model: Two-way ANOVA
 Non-parametric tests: Chi-square, U test, H test, Friedman ANOVA
 Reliability analysis: Cronbach‟s alpha
 Prediction for numerical outcome: Linear regression
 Prediction for identifying groups: Factor analysis, Cluster analysis,
Linear discriminant analysis, Logistic regression
When using SPSS:
 Consider the research design you employed, the
number of variables you manipulated and/or
measured, and the type of data you have collected

 Focus on what you need to look for (difference or

relationship)

 Understand the basic statistical concepts to avoid

running an erroneous data analysis (since SPSS will
not tell you which test you should use to analyze
your data)
 A Typical SPSS Analysis
1. Enter/Read in data (data editor)
• Spreadsheet format
• Rows (respondents) and columns
(variables)
2. Assign variable names, labels and
value codes
• Modify data; create new variables
3. Run a (statistical) procedure
 Opening SPSS
There are two different methods to
start SPSS:
 Click the Windows Start button

 Click Programs >> SPSS for Windows

>> SPSS for Windows
Or,
 Double-click the SPSS icon located on
your desktop
There are two sheets in the window:
1. Data view 2. Variable view

SPSS Processor is ready

Data View window
This sheet is visible when you first open the Data Editor and this sheet
contains the data
 Data View
 Looks like a typical spread sheet display
 Respondents/cases in rows
 Variables in columns
Variable View
 Displays the variable format, labels, missing values

codes, etc.

Click
 Assigning/Naming Variables

 Must begin with a letter. The remaining characters

can be a letter, any digit, or symbols like @, #, _ or $
 Cannot end with a full stop
 Must be unique, duplication is not allowed
 Spaces are not allowed
 Must not include characters such as !, ?, and *
 Not case sensitive – can be in upper or lower case
 Variables and Value Labels
 Variable label is the full description of the variable name
and is the optional means of improving the interpretability
of the output

 Although it is possible to use alphanumeric codes for the

variables, it is recommended that numeric codes be used
whenever possible.
 Example 1:

Variable Name Variable Label

Gender 1 = Male
2 = Female
 Example 2:
 Variable Name Variable Label

Performance 1 = Poor
2 = Fair
3 = Good
4 = Very Good
5 = Excellent

 Once you have nominated variable definition for a

variable you can copy one or more attributes and
apply to one or more variables
 Basic Practical Examples

 How to compute descriptive statistics

 How to conduct tests of significant

relationships

 How to conduct tests of significance of

difference
Sample cases/
applications
Example: A study on job performance and job
commitment of police officers in selected police
districts in Metro Manila

Statement of Problems:
Determining
1. What are the demographic the
characteristics of the respondent respondents‟
police personnel in terms of: profile
1.1 gender
1.2 age
 Measuring
2. What is the level of job performance the two major
of the respondent police personnel? variables:
job
3. What is the level of job commitment performance
of the respondent police personnel? and job
commitment

4. Is there a significant relationship

between the level of job performance Test of
and the level of job commitment of the relationship
police personnel?
3. When grouped according to Test of
gender, is there a significant difference
difference in the following? between
groups
3.1 job performance
3.2 job commitment

4. When grouped according to Test of

police district, is there a significant difference
difference in the following? for k
4.1 job performance samples
4.2 job commitment
 Table 1. Gender of the Respondents

Gender f %

Male 569 84.2

Female 107 15.8

Total 676 100.0

 Table 1. Age of the Respondents

Age f %

23 to 29 years old 116 17.2

30 to 39 years old 217 32.1

40 to 49 years old
216 32.0
50 to 54 years old
127 18.8
Total 676 100.0
Table 3. Level of Performance of Police Personnel

Level of Male Female Total

Performance
f % f % f %
Outstanding 41 7.2 15 14.0 56 8.3

Very Satisfactory 323 56.8 67 62.8 390 57.7

Satisfactory 206 36.0 25 23.4 230 34.0

Total 569 100.0 107 100.0 676 100.0

Mean/ VI 85.545 VS 86.206 VS 85.650 VS

Table 5. Correlation between Job Performance
and Job Commitment

r p Decision

.807 .001 Reject H0

Table 6. t Test Results Comparing Level of Performance and
Level of Commitment between Male and Female
Police Personnel

Mean
Variable Male Female Mean df t p Decision
Police Police diff.
n = 569 n = 107
Job 85.545 86.201 -.661 674 -2.030 .043 Reject H0
performance
Job 85.589 85.280 .308 674 0.914 .361 Do not Reject
H0
commitment
Table 7. Summary of ANOVA on Job Performance
of Police Personnel across Police Districts

Sources of Sum of Mean

Variance Squares df Square F
Between Groups
2146.80 2 1073.40 46.89**

Within Groups 1304.85 57 22.89

Total 3451.65 59

Significant at p < .001

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