Solar Energy

Challenges and Opportunities

George Crabtree
Materials Science Division
Argonne National Laboratory

with
with
Nathan
Nathan Lewis,
Lewis, Caltech
Caltech
Arthur
Arthur Nozik,
Nozik, NREL
NREL
Michael
Michael Wasielewski,
Wasielewski, Northwestern
Northwestern
Paul
Paul Alivisatos,
Alivisatos, UC-Berkeley
UC-Berkeley

Preview
Grand energy challenge
- double demand by 2050, triple demand by 2100

Sunlight is a singular energy resource

- capacity, environmental impact, geo-political security

Breakthrough research directions for mature solar

energy
- solar electric
- solar fuels
- solar thermal

1
 World Energy Demand
2100: 40-50 TW
2050: 25-30 TW
25.00
World Energy Demand total
20.00 energy gap
~ 14 TW by 2050
15.00 ~ 33 TW by 2100
TW

industrial
10.00
developing
50
5.00 US World Fuel Mix 2001
ee/fsu
oil
40
0.00
1970 1990 2010 2030 30
coal
gas

%
20
nucl renew
10

0
85% fossil
EIA Intl Energy Outlook 2004
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/index.html

Hoffert et al Nature 395, 883,1998

Fossil: Supply and Security

When Will Production Peak?
World Oil 2037
50
Production gas: beyond oil production peak
Bbbl/yr

40 2016 coal: > 200 yrs

2% demand growth demand exceeds supply
30 ultimate recovery:
3000 Bbbl
price increases
20
geo-political restrictions
10

1900 1950 2000 2050 2100

EIA: http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/
presentations/long_term_supply/index.htm

R. Kerr, Science 310, 1106 (2005)

World Oil Reserves/Consumption

2001

uneven distribution
⇒ insecure access
OPEC: Venezuela, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,
http://www.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/facts/2004/fcvt_fotw336.shtml United Arab Emirates, Algeria, Libya, Nigeria, and Indonesia

2
 Fossil: Climate Change
CO2 CH4 CO2 in 2004: 380 ppmv
(ppmv) (ppmv)

800
325 -- CO2 + 4
-- CH4 Relaxation time

ΔT relative to
700

present (°C)
300
-- ΔT
275
0 transport of CO2 or heat to deep
600 ocean: 400 - 1000 years
250
500 - 4
225

200 400 - 8
380 1.5
-- CO2

Atmospheric CO2 (ppmv)

175 300 360 1.0
-- Global Mean Temp

Temperature (°C)
400 300 200 100 0 340
Thousands of years before present 0.5
320
(Ky BP)
0
300
Climate Change 2001: T he Scientific Basis, Fig 2.22
280 - 0.5

J. R. Petit et al, Nature 399, 429, 1999 260 - 1.0

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001 240
http://www.ipcc.ch - 1.5
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
N. Oreskes, Science 306, 1686, 2004
Year AD
D. A. Stainforth et al, Nature 433, 403, 2005

The Energy Alternatives

Fossil Nuclear Renewable Fusion

energy gap
~ 14 TW by 2050 10 TW = 10,000 1 GW power plants
~ 33 TW by 2100 1 new power plant/day for 27 years

no single solution
diversity of energy sources
required

3
 Renewable Energy
Solar energy gap
1.2 x 105 TW on Earth’s surface ~ 14 TW by 2050
~ 33 TW by 2100
36,000 TW on land (world)
2,200 TW on land (US)
Wind
2-4 TW extractable Biomass
5-7 TW gross (world)
0.29% efficiency for
all cultivatable land
not used for food
Tide/Ocean
Currents
2 TW gross
Hydroelectric
4.6 TW gross (world)
Geothermal 1.6 TW technically feasible
0.6 TW installed capacity
9.7 TW gross (world) 0.33 gross (US)
0.6 TW gross (US)
(small fraction technically feasible)

Solar Energy Utilization

H2O

H2O
CH3

O2
N

e- O2
CO2
N HN
N N

CO2
H

H2, CH4

h+
CH3OH
sugar
500 - 3000 °C
O

50 - 200 °C
NC
H

space, water heat engines

natural heating electricity generation
photosynthesis process heat
artificial
photosynthesis
Solar Electric Solar Thermal
Solar Fuel
.0002 TW PV (world)
.00003 TW PV (US) 1.4 TW biomass (world)
$0.30/kWh w/o storage 0.006 TW (world)
0.2 TW biomass sustainable (world)

1.5 TW electricity (world) 11 TW fossil fuel 2 TW

$0.03-$0.06/kWh (fossil) (present use) space and water
heating (world)
~ 14 TW additional energy by 2050

4
BES Workshop on Basic Research Needs for
Solar Energy Utilization April 21-24, 2005

Workshop Chair: Nathan Lewis, Caltech

Co-chair: George Crabtree, Argonne

Panel Chairs
Arthur Nozik, NREL: Solar Electric
Mike Wasielewski, NU: Solar Fuel
Paul Alivisatos, UC-Berkeley: Solar Thermal

Topics Plenary Speakers

Photovoltaics Pat Dehmer, DOE/BES Charge
Photoelectrochemistry
Nathan Lewis, Caltech To identify basic research
Bio-inspired Photochemistry
Jeff Mazer, DOE/EERE needs and opportunities in solar
Natural Photosynthetic Systems
Marty Hoffert, NYU electric, fuels, thermal and
Photocatalytic Reactions
related areas, with a focus on
Bio Fuels Tom Feist, GE
new, emerging and scientifically
Heat Conversion & Utilization
challenging areas that have the
Elementary Processes
potential for significant impact
Materials Synthesis
in science and technologies.
New Tools
200 participants
universities, national labs, industry
US, Europe, Asia
EERE, SC, BES

Basic Research Needs for Solar Energy

• The Sun is a singular solution to our future energy needs
- capacity dwarfs fossil, nuclear, wind . . .
- sunlight delivers more energy in one hour
than the earth uses in one year
- free of greenhouse gases and pollutants
- secure from geo-political constraints

• Enormous gap between our tiny use

of solar energy and its immense potential
- Incremental advances in today’s technology
will not bridge the gap
- Conceptual breakthroughs are needed that come
only from high risk-high payoff basic research

• Interdisciplinary research is required

physics, chemistry, biology, materials, nanoscience
http://www.sc.doe.gov/bes/reports/abstracts.html#SEU
• Basic and applied science should couple seamlessly

5
Solar Energy Challenges

Solar electric
Solar fuels
Solar thermal
Cross-cutting research

Solar Electric

• Despite 30-40% growth rate in installation,

photovoltaics generate
less than 0.02% of world electricity (2001)
less than 0.002% of world total energy (2001)
• Decrease cost/watt by a factor 10 - 25 to be
competitive with fossil electricity (without storage)

• Find effective method for storage of

photovoltaic-generated electricity

6
 Cost of Solar Electric Power
$0.10/Wp $0.20/Wp $0.50/Wp
100

80
Thermodynamic

Efficiency %
limit at 1 sun

60
$1.00/Wp

40
Shockley - Queisser
limit: single junction
20
$3.50/Wp

I: bulk Si
II: thin film
module cost only 100 200 300 400 500 dye-sensitized
double for balance of system organic
Cost $/m2
III: next generation
competitive electric power: $0.40/Wp = $0.02/kWh
competitive primary power: $0.20/Wp = $0.01/kWh
assuming no cost for storage

Revolutionary Photovoltaics: 50% Efficient Solar Cells

present technology: 32% limit for lost to

heat
• single junction
• one exciton per photon
• relaxation to band edge

3V
3I
Eg
nanoscale
formats

multiple junctions multiple gaps multiple excitons hot carriers

per photon

rich variety of new physical phenomena

challenge: understand and implement

7
Organic Photovoltaics: Plastic Photocells

)n
polymer donor
( MDMO-PPV
O

fullerene acceptor OMe

PCBM O

donor-acceptor junction

opportunities
inexpensive materials, conformal coating, self-assembling fabrication,
wide choice of molecular structures, “cheap solar paint”

challenges
low efficiency (2-5%), high defect density, low mobility, full
absorption spectrum, nanostructured architecture

Solar Energy Challenges

Solar electric
Solar fuels
Solar thermal
Cross-cutting research

8
 Solar Fuels: Solving the Storage Problem

• Biomass inefficient: too much land area. Increase

efficiency 5 - 10 times

• Designer plants and bacteria for designer fuels:

H2, CH4, methanol and ethanol

• Develop artificial photosynthesis

Leveraging Photosynthesis for Efficient Energy Production

• photosynthesis converts ~ 100 TW of sunlight to sugars: nature’s fuel
• low efficiency (< 1%) requires too much land area

Modify the biochemistry of

plants and bacteria chlamydomonas moewusii

- improve efficiency by a factor

of 5–10
- produce a convenient fuel
methanol, ethanol, H2, CH4 10 µ

hydrogenase
2H+ + 2e- ⇔ H2

switchgrass
Scientific Challenges
- understand and modify genetically controlled biochemistry that limits growth
- elucidate plant cell wall structure and its efficient conversion to ethanol or other fuels
- capture high efficiency early steps of photosynthesis to produce fuels like ethanol and H2
- modify bacteria to more efficiently produce fuels
- improved catalysts for biofuels production

9
Smart Matrices for Solar Fuel Production
• Biology: protein structures dynamically control energy and charge flow
• Smart matrices: adapt biological paradigm to artificial systems

hν hν

energy charge
energy charge

photosystem II smart matrices carry

energy and charge

Scientific Challenges
• engineer tailored active environments with bio-inspired components
• novel experiments to characterize the coupling among matrix, charge, and energy
• multi-scale theory of charge and energy transfer by molecular assemblies
• design electronic and structural pathways for efficient formation of solar fuels

Efficient Solar Water Splitting

O2 H2

demonstrated efficiencies 10-18% in laboratory

Scientific Challenges
• cheap materials that are robust in water
• catalysts for the redox reactions at each electrode
• nanoscale architecture for electron excitation ⇒ transfer ⇒ reaction

10
Solar-Powered Catalysts for Fuel Formation
oxidation reduction
2 H2O CO2 “uphill” reactions enabled by sunlight
4e-
simple reactants, complex products
Cat Cat
spatial-temporal manipulation of
HCOOH electrons, protons, geometry
O2
CH3OH
4H+
H2, CH4
multi-electron transfer
coordinated proton transfer
bond rearrangement

new catalysts targeted for

H2, CH4, methanol and ethanol
are needed

Prototype Water Splitting Catalyst

Solar Energy Challenges

Solar electric
Solar fuels
Solar thermal
Cross-cutting research

11
 Solar Thermal
space heat

mechanical
fuel heat motion electricity

process heat

• heat is the first link in our existing energy networks

• solar heat replaces combustion heat from fossil fuels
• solar steam turbines currently produce the lowest cost solar electricity
• challenges:
new uses for solar heat
store solar heat for later distribution

Solar Thermochemical Fuel Production

high-temperature hydrogen generation
500 °C - 3000 °C
concentrated concentrated solar
solar power power
fossil fuels
Mx Oy Solar Reactor 1/2 O2 gas, oil, coal
Mx Oy ⇒ x M + y/2 O2 M
Solar Solar Solar
Reforming Decomposition Gasification

H2 O Hydrolyser H2
x M + y H2O ⇒ MxOy + y H2
CO2 , C
Mx Sequestration
Oy

Solar H2
Scientific Challenges
high temperature reaction kinetics of
- metal oxide decomposition
- fossil fuel chemistry
robust chemical reactor designs and materials
A. Streinfeld, Solar Energy, 78,603 (2005)

12
Thermoelectric Conversion
thermal gradient ⇔ electricity

figure of merit: ZT ~ (σ /κ) T

ZT ~ 3: efficiency ~ heat engines
no moving parts

2.5
Scientific Challenges PbTe/PbSe
superlattice
increase electrical conductivity Bi2Te3/Sb2Te3
decrease thermal conductivity
LAST-18
superlattice
AgPb18SbTe20
1.5 Zn4Sb3

ZT
TAGS
Si Ge
nanowire superlattice CsBi4Te6 LaFe3CoSb12

nanoscale architectures 0.5 PbTe

interfaces block heat transport Bi2Te3 Mercouri Kanatzidis
confinement tunes density of states
doping adjusts Fermi level 0 200 RT 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Temperature (K)

Solar Energy Challenges

Solar electric
Solar fuels
Solar thermal
Cross-cutting research

13
Molecular Self-Assembly at All Length Scales
The major cost of solar energy conversion is materials fabrication
Self-assembly is a route to cheap, efficient, functional production

physical
biological

Scientific Challenges
- innovative architectures for coupling light-harvesting, redox, and catalytic components
- understanding electronic and molecular interactions responsible for self-assembly
- understanding the reactivity of hybrid molecular materials on many length scales

Defect Tolerance and Self-repair

• Understand defect formation

the water splitting protein in Photosystem II
in photovoltaic materials and is replaced every hour!
self-repair mechanisms in
photosynthesis

•Achieve defect tolerance and

active self-repair in solar
energy conversion devices,
enabling 20–30 year operation

14
 Nanoscience
manipulation of photons, electrons, and molecules

TiO2
nanocrystals artificial
photosynthesis
adsorbed N
quantum dots

liquid
electrolyte natural
photosynthesis
nanostructured
quantum dot solar cells thermoelectrics

nanoscale architectures characterization theory and modeling

top-down lithography scanning probes multi-node computer clusters
bottom-up self-assembly electrons, neutrons, x-rays density functional theory
multi-scale integration smaller length and time scales 10 000 atom assemblies

Solar energy is interdisciplinary nanoscience

Perspective
The Energy Challenge
~ 14 TW additional energy by 2050
~ 33 TW additional energy by 2100
13 TW in 2004

Solar Potential
125,000 TW at earth’s surface
36,000 TW on land (world)
2,200 TW on land (US)
Breakthrough basic research needed

Solar energy is a young science

- spurred by 1970s energy crises
- fossil energy science spurred by industrial revolution - 1750s

solar energy horizon is distant and unexplored

15