FINAL DRAFT SUBMITTED IN THE PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE COURSE TITLED

SOCIOLOGY

CHANAKYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY, NYAYA NAGAR,

MITHAPUR, PATNA - 800001

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

SANGEET SIR AYUSHI KHANDELWAL

FACULTY OF SOCIOLOGY ROLL NO. 1922

SEMESTER-I
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the present world of competition there is a race of existence in which those are having will to
come forward succeed. Project is like a bridge between theoretical and practical working. I
would like to extend our heartiest thank with a deep sense of gratitude and respect to all those
who provide me immense help and guidance. Firstly, I would like to thank the supreme power
the Almighty God who obviously the one has always guided me to work on the one has always
guided me to work on the right path of life. Next to him are my parents, whom I am greatly
indebted for me, brought up with love and encouragement to this stage.

I would like to express my sincere thanks to Dr. Sangeet Kumar, Assistant Professor of
Sociology. I am grateful to him for guidance, encouragement, understanding and insightful
support in the development process

I am also thankful to entire Chanakya National Law University for their constant encouragement,
suggestion, and moral support throughout the duration of my project.

Last but not the least I would like to mention here that I am greatly indebted to each and
everybody who has been associated with my project at any stage but whose name does not find a
place in the acknowledgment.

Ayushi Khandelwal

Roll Number: 1922

I Semester B.A. LL.B.(Hons.)

 DECLARATION:

I hereby declare that the work reported in B.A. LL.B. (HONS) project entitled “CULTURE OF
RAJASTHAN WITH REFERENCE TO MARWARI ” submitted at Chanakya National Law University
is an authentic record of my work carried out under the supervision of SANGEET KUMAR SIR. I have
not submitted this work elsewhere for any other degree or diploma. I am fully responsible for the
contents of my project report.
Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 5
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................................... 6
AIMS AND OBJECTIVE ............................................................................................................................... 6
REVIEW OF LITERATURE............................................................................................................................ 6
HYPOTHESIS .............................................................................................................................................. 6
RESEARCH QUESTIONS.............................................................................................................................. 6
SCOPE AND LIMITATION ........................................................................................................................... 7
SOURCES OF DATA .................................................................................................................................... 7
METHOD OF WRITING............................................................................................................................... 7
MODE OF CITATION .................................................................................................................................. 7
2. HISTORY OF RAJASTHAN ........................................................................................................................... 8
3. CULTURE OF RAJASTHAN .......................................................................................................................... 9
3.1 FOOD ................................................................................................................................................... 9
3.2 MUSIC AND DANCE ........................................................................................................................... 10
3.3 ARTS AND CRAFTS ............................................................................................................................. 10
3.4 RELIGION ........................................................................................................................................... 11
3.4 ARCHITECTURE .................................................................................................................................. 12
4. PEOPLE OF RAJASTHAN ........................................................................................................................... 14
4.1 SOCIAL MAKE UP OF RAJASTHAN ..................................................................................................... 15
4.2 ECONOMY OF RAJASTHAN ................................................................................................................ 16
5. MARWARI PEOPLE .............................................................................................................................. 18
5.1 Marwari Culture ................................................................................................................................ 18
Origin of Marwaris .................................................................................................................................. 20
5. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 23
 1. INTRODUCTION

Rajasthan, a kaleidoscopic State, is the State where tradition and modernity blends together to
form a rich amalgamation of colours, culture and tradition. Diversity cuts across the realms of
physiographic, culture, customs, tradition and language. (State Environmental Atlas, Rajasthan,
2009:12).The State of Rajasthan, as an adobe of Rajput rulers, the princes and the heroic warriors
is located in the North-Western corner of India. It is known as India’s desert State since 61 per
cent of its area, covering 11 districts inhabit anted by 40 per cent if the population is either desert
or semi-desert. The State is situated in land-locked north-western part of the Indian union
covering arid Great Indian Desert and parts of semi-arid climate zone. The State has an area of
132,140 square miles (342,239 square kilometres) which is around 10.45 per cent of India. The
State has 33 administrative unites divided into 241 tehsils and 237 development blocks as of
2001 census of India. It is surrounded by Punjab in north, Gujarat in south, Pakistan in west and
Uttar Pradesh in east. It has also borders with Haryana and Delhi in north-east and Madhya
Pradesh in south east.

As the present study is about Culture of Rajasthan and Marwaris that is highly dependent on
socio and human aspects of the study area, this chapter deals about those characteristics of
Rajasthan which have a direct or indirect bearing on delegate culture relationships.

Rajasthan is the 'Land of The Kings'. It was previously called Rajputana. Over the years it has
been ruled by various kings including the Rajput, Marathas and even Muslim rulers, which have
resulted in

Rajasthan, bearing numerous beautiful forts with a wide variety in its architecture and diverse
language and culture of its people. Rajasthan, in spite of being a desert, has been endowed with
such beautiful sites that include various palaces, forts and pilgrim centres that define what
Rajasthan really is.

Rajasthan is famous for its prestigious past and its various customs and
traditions. It truly gives an insight into historic India and its phenomenal
diversity.
 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
As the research work for this topic is confines to the online sources and books . Hence,
researcher in his research work has opted the doctrinal methodology of research. For doing the
research work various sources has been used. Researcher in the research work has relied upon
the online materials.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVE

 The objective of the project is to give a brief outline of RAJASTHAN AND ITS
CULTURE.
 To study about its HISTORY and its people especially MARWARIS.
 The researcher has also tried to know the opinion of different Marwaris .

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Culture of Rajasthan and Marwaris are reviewed separately here despite being related to each

other . In this study they will be studied one by one and then a comparison is brought. Culture of

Rajasthan is studied as wider perspective and Culture of Marwaris is studied as narrower.

HYPOTHESIS
In course of making of this project the researcher will refer to the culture in Rajasthan which
includes food, clothing, festivals, tourism and the uniqueness associated with Rajasthan. Readers
can expect information regarding the people of Rajasthan especially Marwari, their views
regarding socio and political scenario with respect to the subject of sociology.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
 SCOPE AND LIMITATION
The scope of the project extends to study of ‘Rajasthan and Marwaris’. I tried to explain the
present day position of laws in this context while discussing the various provisions of law
regarding the same. The project is based on doctrinal method of research as field work on this
topic is quite difficult still I tried to do that. I have mainly used the online sources relating to the
subject. Moreover, some references are used. Due to lack of expertise, finance and time
constraints, I had to use secondary sources to do the research work which is the limitation of this
project.

SOURCES OF DATA
The research has used both primary and secondary sources to complete the project.

METHOD OF WRITING
The method of writing followed in this project is both analytical and descriptive.

MODE OF CITATION
Uniform mode of citation has been followed hinting at the Harvard Law School‘s Bluebook for
this project
 2. HISTORY OF RAJASTHAN
Historically, Rajasthan’s has remained focal point of regular changes, upheavals and changes in
social and political spheres due to its peculiar location. Since from drawn of civilization up to
present day the political system of the area has witnessed the democratic rituals, kingship and
kinship as well as socialistic pattern of government administration. Starting from Indus valley
civilization.

Rajasthan has always remained civilizes but not always with same name (Todd, 1929). The
present name of the arid and semi-arid territory came up in 1829 from the famous book of Col.
Todd ‘Annals and Antiquities of 40 Rajasthan’. Apart from Rajasthan this territory is also known
as ‘Rajaputana’ (Land of the Kings). This symbolizes rich cultural and political history of Rajput
Dynasties. The period between 7th century and 11th century is known as Rajput period in Indian
history, which has played crucial role in the formation of Rajasthan a political and cultural
identify.

Around 12th century a part of Rajasthan came under Muslim rulers and the principal centers of
their powers were Nagaur and Ajmer. At the beginning of the 13th century AD, the most
prominent and powerful State of Rajasthan was Mewar. During medieval and modern times,
Rajasthan had never been united politically until its domination by Mughal Emperor - Akbar.
Akbar created a unified province of Rajasthan. Mughal power started to decline after 1707. The
political disintegration of Rajasthan was caused by the dismemberment of the Mughal Empire.
After the fall of Rajput and Mughal dynasties, Britisher’s made attempt to bring various
principally States under their rule. Although British rule gave much needed political unity to the
States at macro level but at the principally States levels Rajasthan was constantly ruled by
smaller and weak Rajput rulers up to independence.

The task of building present day Rajasthan commenced in the year, 1948 which after having
passed through various stages was completed in the year, 1956. Presently, Rajasthan has been
divided into 7 divisions and 33 districts from administrative point of view
 3. CULTURE OF RAJASTHAN
Rajasthan has artistic and cultural traditions which reflect the ancient Indian way of life.
Rajasthan was also called Rajputana (the country of the Rajputs); It is also a tourism destination
with lots of tourist attractions and good tourist facilities. This historical state of India attracts
tourists and vacationers with its rich culture, tradition, heritage, and monuments. It has also some
sanctuaries & national parks. More than 70% of Rajasthan is vegetarian, which makes it the most
vegetarian state in India. In this chapter I majorly tried to study about various factors which
define culture of Rajasthan like:

1. Food
2. Music And Dance
3. Art
4. Religion
5. Architecture

3.1 FOOD
The cuisine that originated in Rajasthan and the surrounding region in India is known as the
Rajasthani cuisine. The state of Rajasthan is famed for its rich regal culture and heritage. The
arid nature of the region, the extreme climatic conditions, scarcity of water and vegetation has
witnessed evolvement of unique cooking styles and food habits of the natives that is noticeably
different from other Indian cuisines. The Rajasthanis have moulded their culinary styles in such a
way that many of their dishes can be shelved for several days and served without heating. The
royal heritage of the region as well as the gastronomic enthusiasm among locals have led to a
wide variety of delectable and exquisite Rajasthani dishes starting from main courses to snacks
to sweet dishes. Some items like Dal-Baati-Churma and Bikaneri Bhujia have garnered both
national and international popularity among foodies.
 3.2 MUSIC AND DANCE
Highly cultivated classical music and dance with its own distinct style is part of the cultural
tradition of Rajasthan. The music is uncomplicated and songs depict day-to-day relationships and
chores, more often focused around fetching water from wells or ponds. The Ghoomar dance from
Jodhpur and Kalbeliya dance of Jaisalmer have gained international recognition. Folk music is a
vital part of Rajasthani culture. Kathputali, Bhopa, Chang, Teratali, Ghindar, Kachchhighori,
Tejaji,parth dance etc. are the examples of the traditional Rajasthani culture. Folk songs are
commonly ballads which relate heroic deeds and love stories; and religious or devotional songs
known as bhajans and banis (often accompanied by musical instruments like dholak, sitar,
sarangi etc.) are also sung. Kanhaiya Geet also sung in major areas of east rajasthani belt in the
collectiong manner as a best source of entertainment in the rural areas.

3.3 ARTS AND CRAFTS

Rajasthan is famous for textiles, semi-precious stones and handicrafts, and for its traditional and
colorful art. Rajasthani furniture has intricate carvings and bright colours. Block prints, tie and
dye prints, Bagaru prints, Sanganer prints and Zari embroidery are major export products from
Rajasthan. The blue pottery of Jaipur is particularly noted.

Rajasthan is renowned the world over for its hand-printed textiles, jewellery, painting, furniture,
leatherwork, pottery and metal craft. The use of exuberant colours and ornate, designs are some
unique features of the artwork of the state. Extensive areas of Rajasthan are monotone, beige –
brown desert but the dramatic spectacle and visual variety that pervade it make it one of the most
vibrantly colourful of Indian states. These paradoxes are seen again and again- a recurring motif
reflected in its decorative arts and crafts.

Though time and again, it has been ravaged by invaders from all across the world, Rajasthan still
houses the most opulent and rich treasures. Its history is a long saga of blood feuds and violent
battles, but the forbidding stone battlements of its forts shield mirrored rooms and marble
carvings of delicacy and grace. The high-balconies that sometimes were a deterrent to the
freedom of women were also marvels of exquisite ornamentation. The jewelled belts and anklets
that adorned them were not just ornaments but also rich symbols of love and pride. Needless to
say, as an intimate part of everyday life, Rajasthani art and culture has withstood the vicissitudes
of industrialism and tourism. Rajasthan and its crafts area source of endless fascination-whether
one approaches them for purely visual, aesthetic pleasure or pauses to savour the underlying
history, culture and symbolism.

3.4 RELIGION
Rajasthan is home to all the major religions of India. Hindus are the largest in number,
accounting for 87.45% of the population. Muslims (10.08%), Sikhs (1.27%), Jains (1%) and
Sindhi's constitute the remaining of the population.

 FESTIVALS

The main religious festivals are Deepawali, Holi, Gangaur, Teej, Gogaji, Makar Sankranti and
Janmashtami, as the main religion is Hinduism. Rajasthan's desert festival is celebrated with
great zest and zeal. This festival is held once a year during winters. People of the desert dance
and sing ballads of valor, romance and tragedy. There are fairs with snake charmers, puppeteers,
acrobats and folk performers. Camels play a prominent role in this festival.

 RELIGIOUS SYNCRETISM

Rajasthan has several popular Hindu saints, many from the Bhakti era. Rajasthani saints hail
from all castes; Maharshi Naval Ram and Umaid Ram Maharaj were Bhangis, Karta Ram
Maharaj was a Shudra, Sundardasa was a Vaish, and Meerabai and Ramdeoji were Rajputs. The
backward caste Nayaks serve as the narrators or the devotional music (or "bhajan") for the Baba
Ramdevji sect.

The most popular Hindu deities are Surya, Krishna and Rama.
 3.4 ARCHITECTURE
Rajasthan state is certainly the most colorful state in the country. Rajasthan has an exclusive
architecture and is well-known for its architecture all over the nation. Rajasthan’s architecture is
chiefly based on Rajput school of architecture which was an assortment of the Mughal and
the Hindu structural plan.

The astonishing forts, the beautifully engraved temples and the splendid Havelis of the Rajasthan
state are essential parts of Rajasthan’s architectural heritage. The Rajputs were productive
designers and builders. Some impressive and splendid palaces and forts in the world mark the
parched Aravalli milieu and tell the anecdotes of their magnificent bequest. The assortment and
vividness of the architectural heritage of Rajasthan can stun a sightseer.
Some of the famous formations that symbolize the architectural legacy of Rajasthan are Dilwara
Temples, Chittaurgarh Fort, Lake Palace Hotel, Jaisalmer Havelis and City Palace.

Some styles of the architecture of Rajasthan include:

• Chhatri
• Jharokha
• Stepwell
• Haveli
• Johad

STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE

Chhatris are eminent, dome shaped porches used as a constituent in the architecture of India.
The Chhatris are normally used to portray the fundamentals of admiration and pride in
Rajasthan’s Rajput architecture. They are extensively used, in forts, in palaces or to distinguish
funerary locations. Instigating in the architecture of Rajasthan where there were memorials for
royalty and kings, they were later on tailored as a typical characteristic in all constructions of
Rajasthan, and most significantly in the Mughal architecture. They are at present seen in the
premium shrines, Delhi’s Humayun's Tomb and Agra’s Taj Mahal. In Hindi, the term
"Chhatri" refers to a canopy or an umbrella.
A Jharokha is a kind of suspended enclosed gallery used in the architecture of India,
characteristically in Rajasthani architecture, Mughal architecture and Rajputana architecture.
One of the most significant purposes it served was to permit women in Pardah to witness the
events without being noticed themselves. On the other hand, these casements could also be used
to place spies and archers.

Haveli is the idiom used for a private manor in Pakistan and India, typically one with
architectural and historical implication. Haveli word is derived from the word Hawli which
means an "enclosed place". Hawli is a Persian word. They share alike traits with other mansions
derived from the Architecture of Islam such as the customary houses in Morocco that are called
the Riads. Many Havelis in Pakistan and India were swayed by Central Asian, Indian
architecture and Islamic Persian.

Stepwells are known by many names such as Kalyani, Pushkarani, Bawdi, Baoli,
Barav orVaav. These Stepwells are ponds or wells in which water can reach by sliding some
steps. TheStepwells may be roofed and secluded and are frequently of architectural implication.
The Stepwells are most widespread in the Western region of India.

A Johad is storage of rainwater in a tank mainly used in Rajasthan. It stores and collects water
all through the year that is used for drinking by cattle and humans. In many areas of Rajasthan
the yearly rainfall is very little thus; the water can be unlikable to drink. Rainfall during the
months of July and August is stocked up in Johads and is used all through the year. Johads are
called "Khadins" in Jaisalmer.

TEMPLES OF RAJASTHAN

The immense architectural association which flounced Rajasthan from centuries was actually

later blossoming of the virile expansion enthused by the Guptas. The Temples constructed

around this instance also comprises of temples at Chittorgarh as well as Osiyan in the western

part of Rajasthan. The recognizable characteristic of these temples are spire as well as intricately
engraved external chamber known as the Mandap, earlier than the internal sanctum. Fine
illustrations of some of the magnificent temples are the Kumbha Shyam temples and Kalika
Mata Temple in Chittorgarh fortress.

4. PEOPLE OF RAJASTHAN
Demographic behavior of Rajasthan has changed on the lines of demographic behavior of India.
Prior to 1921, which was also a demographic divide for Rajasthan, similar to India, population
growth was very slow. Prevalence of high birth and death rate along with frequented droughts
and hunger death acted as a check on population growth period after 1921 marks the starting of
demographic transition in Rajasthan. Partial check on droughts and better availability of medical
care lead to significant reduction in death rate but birth rate was still very high, leading to high
population growth rate. Between 1901 and 1951, the population of State increased by only 5.6
million from 10.3 million 70 to 15.9 million. However, period after 1951 and up to 1981 marked
the highest ever growth rate in population throughout demographic history, in Rajasthan. Rapidly
falling death rate reached to the lowest during this period but birth rate was phenomenally very
high due to low social development during this period. After 1981 Rajasthan has witnessed a
great change demographic behavior. With improvement in literacy and social development
Rajasthan witnessed fall in birth rate, casing slow growth in population. Even though population
growth rate was reduced in Rajasthan as compared to past but it is still higher than that of
national average. The low age of marriage, low couple protection rate, low female literacy rate
are prime cause of high population growth in Rajasthan. The distribution of population in
Rajasthan has always been quite even favoring suitability climate and physical features.
Agriculture being the main economic activity, the important influences on population
distribution was the physical configuration, fertility of soil, rainfall and irrigation facilities.
Nearly half the population of State is found in the quarter of its area comprising eastern fertile
plain of Rajasthan. That means population of Rajasthan is highly concentrated in fertile plains
and places with suitable climate, the density of population shows a shape decrease westward and
in desert plain population is highly scattered and clustered around water points. This pattern of
population distribution rejects the habitability conditions closely related to be availability of
water. The demographic history of Rajasthan shows that urbanization in Rajasthan has always
less than that of national average. The tendency of primary is one of the peculiar characteristics
of urbanization in Rajasthan. Cities like Jaipur, Jodhpur and Udaipur are regional private cities of
great economic important. But Rajasthan throughout have remained primary a rural society.
According to census 2011, 76.62 per cent of State’s population resides in rural 52 areas. In terms,
of other demographic characteristics literacy rate in Rajasthan has always remained low; with
huge region variations between different regions of the State. In terms, literacy rate in census
(2011). Rajasthan recorded impressive 12% growth. But on women literacy the performance of
Rajasthan is very dismal.

Rajasthan ranks among lowest in India in terms of female literacy. Sex-ratio in Rajasthan in the
census 2011 was 926 females per thousand male which was lower than that of national average it
ranked 17th at India level where as during 1981 it was at 16th place. The sex-ratio has shown
regular ups and downs throughout demographic history primarily owning to poor status of
women in the society (Bhalla, 2011; 54).

4.1 SOCIAL MAKE UP OF RAJASTHAN

Rajasthan is a land of great cultural and social diversity. Various tribal groups along with other
social group have made Rajasthan a different cultural mosaic. Different type of languages, social
and religion beliefs have led to the formation a unique kind of social formation in India. Among
major tribe inhabiting Meena, Bhils, Garsia, Saharia and Damore are very important. These tribal
groups are found in following three geographical regions:-

(a) South Eastern Zone

This zone includes the districts of Alwar, Bharatpur, Dholpur, Kota, Baran, Bundi,
Jhalawar and Chittorgarh. This region constitutes 46.06% of total tribal population of the
State. Bhil, Meena, and Saharia are the chief tribes found in this region.

(b) Southern Zone

 The southern zone includes the districts of Banswara, Dungarpur, Rajsamand, Sirohi and
Udaipur in which 43.08% of the total tribal population is found. In this region Bhil,
Meena, Garsia and Damore are Chief tribes that are found in this zone.

(c) Western Region

This region includes Jhunjhunu, Sikar, Churu, Ganganagar, Nagpur, Pali, Jodhpur and
Jalore districts of Rajasthan. This region encompasses 7.14% of the total tribal population
of the State. This tribal region is mostly comprised of the Bhil and the Meena tribes.
Apart from there region there are few tribal groups in Rajasthan which are located in few
tehsils or districts only. In these Saharia largely inhabited in Kota and Shahabad areas,
Garsia dwell in Udaipur Pali and Sirohi districts and Dormers dwell in Dungarpur district
only. About 96% of the total tribal population of Rajasthan belongs to rural areas while
only 4% of them are living in urban centers.

4.2 ECONOMY OF RAJASTHAN

Economy of Rajasthan is pre-dominantly agricultural and rural in nature and there are
wide fluctuations in the growth rate of the Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) due to
uncertainties in agricultural production, which is almost entirely dependent on the mercy
of rainfall.
Economy of Rajasthan has always remained traditionally based on agriculture, but
recently its economy has witnessed a shift towards service based economy on the lines of
Indian economy. The trends in State GDP show that tertiary sector has grown rapidly
after 1991 when State and central government initiated various programs globally to woo
tourists. According to climates of planning commission, in the year 2000, total of
7997491 tourists visited Rajasthan, out of which 7.79% tourists were foreign tourists.
Tourism plays crucial role in State economy by providing employment and investment to
the fund deficient economy. The share of the manufacturing sector in NSDP which is
26.34 per cent is projected to increase with rapid pace in the next few years through
accelerated industrial growth for which there is ample scope in the State. Mineral
industry and the discovery of natural gas in the State have pushed State at a greater
advantage of having robust economic development.
 5. MARWARI PEOPLE

The Marwari or Marwadi are a South Asian ethno-linguistic group in India and Nepal that
originate from the Marwar Shekhawati Jaipur region of Rajasthan and Haryana in broader term,
India. Their language, also called Marwari, comes under the umbrella of Rajasthani languages,
which is part of the Western Zone of Indo-Aryan languages.

They have been a highly successful business community, first as inland traders during the era of
Rajput kingdoms, and later also as investors in industrial production and other sectors. Today,
they control many of the country's largest media groups. Although spread throughout India,
historically they have been most concentrated in Kolkata and the hinterlands of central and
eastern India. The term Marwadi once referred to the area encompassed by the former princely
state of Marwar, also called the Jodhpur region of southwest Rajasthan in India. It has evolved to
be a designation for the Rajasthani people in general but it is used particularly with reference to
certain jātis that fall within the Bania ethnic category. The most prominent among
thosecommunities, whose traditional occupation has been as traders, are the Agrawals,
Khandelwals, Maheshwaris and Oswals.

Dwijendra Tripathi believes that the term Marwari was probably used by the traders only when
they were outside their home region; that is, by the diasporas. Marawaris have been known for a
tightly-knit social solidarity, described by Selig Harrison in 1960 as "indissoluble under the
impact of the strongest regional solvents".

5.1 Marwari Culture

The Marwaris are renowned all over India for having emerged in the nineteenth century as the

most prominent group of traders. Under colonial rule they played the role of intermediary traders

for the British and facilitated Britain’s commercial expansions. In the early twentieth century
they invested in modern industries and some of them became industrial giants. It is estimated that
more than half the assets in the modern industrial sector of the Indian economy are controlled by
a group of trading castes originating in the northern half of Rajasthan, popularly called the
Marwaris [Timberg 1978:15]. As of 1986, the Birlas, the Singhanias, the Modis, and the Bangurs
(all Marwari business houses) accounted for one third of the total assets of the top ten business
houses in India [Dubashi 1996 cited in Hardgrove 2004:3].

Several studies on the Marwaris have been made. A well-known study by Thomas Timberg

focused on the strength of the Marwaris in Indian industry and explored the reason for their

disproportionate success. Studying the history of Marwari migrations and the types of economic

activities in which they engaged, he discussed what advantages the Marwaris had over other

commercial communities in modern industrialization. He suggested that the joint family system,
a credit network across the country, and willingness to speculate were important characteristics.
The possession of these advantages emerges from their traditional caste vocation in trade. The
Marwaris are habituated to credit and risk, and develop institutions and attitudes for coping with
them While researchers have discussed the economic activities and organization of the Marwaris,
the Marwaris’ eagerness for religious gifting and philanthropy has also drawn attention. Hynes
discusses the politics of gift giving by businessmen in a western Indian city. He argues that all
kinds of gifting by merchants, from the tribute to Mughal rulers and religious gifts for temple
building, to modern philanthropy and even to financial support for nationalist movements, are
consistent with establishing a social reputation. The reputation acquired by these symbolic
investments contributes to building stable social relationships with members of their own
community and with their rulers, consequently promoting business success [Hynes 1987].

The way that merchants transform their wealth into reputation and into political influence is
related to how they create public representations of themselves. This article focuses on the
symbolic investments of diasporic merchants in their hometown. While previous studies tended
to see the Marwari in relation to other groups of people in the societies they migrated into, I
locate them in their hometown. Based on fieldwork conducted in a business town in Rajasthan, I
address the questions of how Marwaris have kept in touch with their native places after
migration and why they invested in the houses and towns they had left. In other words I consider
how and why Marwaris exercised and exercise their presence in the towns they left and what is
the meaning of “homeland” to these diasporic merchants
In the following sections, I first present ideas about who the Marwaris are, and how they became
the most successful business group in India. Second, I look at the history of a business town in
Shekhawati, focusing on the relationship between rulers and merchants. Third, I discuss the
Marwari’s investments in their hometowns, especially mansions constructed with the fortunes
they had made abroad. Last, I consider the meaning of ‘homeland’ for diasporic Marwaris.

Origin of Marwaris
First, Marwaris moved to Calcutta or some other place outside of Rajasthan and found
themselves some niche there. Then, they accumulated capital in trade and soon enough emerged
as important dealers in the foreign trade of opium, indigo, grain, and later cotton. They used an
extensive system of hundi bills of exchange, which were used in trade and credit transactions and
also used as remittance instruments for the purpose of transferring funds from one place to
another. A hundi is an unconditional order in writing made by one person directing another to
pay a certain sum of money to a person named in the order. The exchange, honouring, and
discounting of hundis rested on the networks of trust the Marwaris had across the country [Jain
1929].

Changes in land settlement policies and the ensuing greater commercialization of agriculture also
facilitated the growth of a capitalist trader class. Marwari traders were drawn to the countryside
as moneylenders and they financed the growth of new cash crops. They became a channel for
British economic expansion and thereby gained substantially from participation in trade,
banking, and commerce.

In the early twentieth century the Marwari community entered the manufacturing industry.

When the Marwaris moved into industry, they were inspired by the sentiments of nationalism,

modernization, and social reform. Timberg points out that entry into industry was both an

expression and a cause of the nationalist and reformist impulses in the community, because

industry was felt to be more productive than trade and more secure than speculation. Industry

decreased dependence on Britain while trade served as the substance of that dependence
[Timberg 1978:67].
From the 1930s onward, some families emerged as industrial giants. The monopolies inquiry

Commission of 1964 reported that 10 of the 37 largest North Indian–owned industrial houses
were held by Marwaris, and that those 10 firms controlled 7.5 billion rupees in assets. This made
up 38% of the total assets controlled by the 37 largest industrial firms. The monopolies inquiry

Commission listed the names of 147 large enterprises owned by Marwari groups, which included

23 jute mills, 34 cotton textile mills, 11 sugar mills, and 8 cement factories [Timberg 1978:9–
11].

There are several reasons Marwaris could attain and retain their position of accumulating

capital. According to Timberg, it was partly because of the fact that they did not sink too much
of their capital in land, but preferred more risky and more profitable pursuits. It was also in part

because they had relatively easy access to credit, information, and manpower from their

organization as a commercial community [Timberg 1978:175]. Markovits also suggests that

Marwari traders belonged to an all-India network and could draw sustenance from a constant

supply of capital and personnel from other areas of the subcontinent. The circulatory pattern of

their movements was an essential element of strength, as close links could thus be maintained
with their localities of origin [Markovits 2002:145].

As will be seen in the following sections, large all-India multi-branch firms of Marwaris in

many cases had their headquarters in Rajasthan. Capital and personnel constantly moved from

headquarters to branches, while profits were regularly remitted in the other direction. Marwari

migrants left families in their home villages in Rajasthan and visited at intervals. They normally

moved out in their early youth, and remained as emigrants, except for vacation trips, until their

retirement. For the dispersed merchants, the hometown was the centre both of their family life
and business network. The migration pattern, however, evolved from periodic to permanent after
the 1920s when the migration of wives and women started. Although there have been many
reasons for the decisions of wives and children to leave their homes in Rajasthan to join their
men folk in distant places, the later migration of other family members, particularly women, was
initially enabled by the completion of a railway corridor from Shekhawati to Calcutta in 1916,
assuring safe and speedy passage. The change in migration patterns affected the relationships
Marwaris had with their hometowns and transformed the original role and meaning.
 5. CONCLUSION
We have seen that for Marwaris, a hometown is the centre of a network around which
personnel, capital, and honour circulate. As for conclusions, I will consider the meaning
of “homeland” for the Marwaris who are essentially mobile. Why have Marwaris
invested in their hometowns after they left? Their symbolic investments have not been
exclusively directed into their hometowns, but I will argue that those made in the
hometown have a special importance to diasporic Marwaris.
Migration was common and natural for the merchant communities because they had
never been tied down to any particular land. By the nineteenth century, they neither
owned land nor invested in landed property. They were not permitted to build big houses
and, as we have already seen, it was unwise to draw the baron’s attention to one’s
affluence. Their resources were strong networks of trading partners and families, which
made them flexible and their migration easier. They would stay in places they had
chances to set up businesses and leave a place when they could no longer tolerate the
amount of extortion by the rulers or when the overall business environment changed.
Today philanthropic projects, such as the establishment of temples, schools, hospitals,
and cow protection-sheds continue to be carried out among Marwaris in their hometowns.
But the ancestral haveli itself has lost its importance and no more investments in it have
been made. Many Marwari families living in Calcutta still perform a ceremony to mark
the first haircut of a boy in Rajasthan. The ceremony, however, is not performed in the
boy’s ancestral house but in the temple of the family’s clan goddess (kuldevi) or ancestral
god. For example, a boy of the Ganeriwala family aged just one year had his first-haircut
ceremony in August 2010. His great grandfather had migrated to Calcutta from
Ratangarh, where his family has a haveli, but his ancestors are said to have originated in a
village called Ganeri. That is why they are called Ganeriwala. The ancestral god of the
Ganeriwala is in that village. The boy’s family visited Ganeri first and then the temple of
their clan goddess (Chatrbhuja Matamai) in Fatehpur for his haircut ceremony. The
family did not visit Ratanghar, despite it being a hometown where they have a haveli and
used to perform family rituals. To the diasporic Marwaris of today, the location of their
ancestral haveli does not have much meaning, while they have still maintained a
relationship with the place where the clan goddess and ancestral god are located.
Recently a list of the members of the Ganeriwala clan scattered all over India was made
by a man living in Calcutta. A meeting of Ganeriwala clan members is planned to be held
once a year. For them, clan membership seems to have become more important for
identity construction than ancestral houses are. After all, the “homeland” for mobile
merchants was defined by the supposed ancestral domicile. Once it was a mansion
constructed by the ancestor’s name and nowadays it is a temple where the clan goddess
and ancestral god are located. The families of the Singhania clan in Calcutta transferred
their clan goddess and ancestral god (Ramishan Mata and Dedar Kothi) from the original
places in Rajasthan to a family temple in Calcutta. They thus have no need to visit
Rajasthan to perform family rituals. This group of Marwari families brought their
ancestral domicile into Calcutta. For diasporic Mariwaris, the hometown has been
consciously created and confirmed by visiting and investing. This is because it is the
place around which the most important resources for merchants—that is, the personnel,
capital and reputation—circulate. However, once the flow of these resources change, the
“homeland”, as the centre of identity for mobile merchants, can be changed as well.