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EI6702 Logic and Distributed Control System Unit IV- Distributed Control System
Unit IV - DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM

Syllabus
DCS – Various Architectures – Comparison – Local control unit – Process
interfacing issues – Communication facilities
4.0 Introduction
A distributed control system (DCS) can be able to control and monitor the entire plant
or manufacturing system. If in case of any fault in the plant can identify through by monitoring
of system. The controllers can control the entire system and each sub-system can control by
one or more controllers.
4.1 Evolution of Industrial Control Technology
Figure 1. Evolution of Industrial Control Technology

The lines of technological development can be divided into two separate streams, as
shown in figure 1. The upper stream with its two branches is the more traditional one, and
includes the evolution of analog controllers and other discrete devices such as relay logic and
motor controllers. The second stream is a more recent one that includes the use of large scale
digital computers and their mini and micro descendants in industrial process control. These
streams have merged into the current main stream of distributed digital control systems.
Key Milestones in Control System Evolution:
• 1934 – Direct-connected pneumatic controls dominate market.
• 1958 – First computer monitoring in electric utility.
• 1959 – First supervisory computer in refinery.
• 1960 – First solid-state electronic controllers on market.
• 1963 – First Direct Digital Control (DDC) system installed.
• 1970 – First programmable logic controllers (PLC) on market.
• 1975 – First distributed digital control system on market.
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St. Joseph's College of Engineering 1 Department of EIE
4.1.1 Traditional Control Systems Developments
The early discrete device control systems listed were distributed around the plant.
Individual control devices: such as governors and mechanical controllers were located at the
process equipment to be controlled. Local readouts of set points and control outputs were
available and a means of changing the control mode from manual to auto mode usually was
provided. It was up to the operator to coordinate the control of many devices that made up the
total process. They did this by roaming around the plant and making corrections to the control
devices. This is a feasible approach to the control of early industrial processes because the plant
was small geographically and the processes were not too large or complex.
The same architecture was copied when direct connected pneumatic controllers were
developed in the late 1920s. These controllers provided more flexibility in selection and
adjustment of control algorithms, but all the control elements of the control loop were still
located in the field. There was no communication between the controllers other than that
provided by the each operator to other operators in the plant using visual and vocal means. This
situation changed of necessity in the late 1930s due to growth in size and complexity of the
process to be controlled. More difficult to run a plant using the isolate –loop control architecture
described above.
The emphasis on improving overall plant operations led to a movement towards
centralized control and equipment rooms. This was made possible by the development of
transmitter-type pneumatic systems. In this architecture, measurements are made at a process
were converted to pneumatic signals at standard levels, which were then transmitted to the
central location. The required control signals were computed at this location, and then
transmitted back to the operator at the central location. The great advantage of this architecture
was that all of the process information was available to the operator at the central location.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the technology used to implement this architecture
started to shift from pneumatics to electronics. One of the key objectives of this shift was
replacing the long runs of tubing used in pneumatic systems with wires used in electronics one.
This change reduced the cost of installing the control systems and also eliminates the time lag
inherent in pneumatic systems.
Another consequence of centralized control architecture was development of the split
range controller structure. In this type of controller, the operator display section of the
controller is panel mounted in the control room and the computing section is located in a
separate rack in an adjoining equipment room. The split controller structure is especially
appropriate for complex, interactive control systems.
In the early 1970s a sophisticated device known as the programmable logic controller
(PLC) was developed to implement sequential logic systems. This device is significant because
it was one of the first special purpose, computer based devices that could be used by someone
who was not a computer specialist. It was designed to be programmed by a user who was
familiar with relay logic diagrams. All the versions of sequential logic systems have been
implemented in direct-connected distributed architecture as well as in centralized ones. In each
case logic controller has been associated directly with the corresponding unit of process
equipment, with little or no communication between it and other logic controllers. The late
1970s PLCs and computers started to be connected together in integrated systems for factory
automation.
4.1.2 Computer-based Control System Developments
The first application of computers to industrial processes was in the areas of plant
monitoring and supervisory control. In September 1958, the first industrial computer system
for plant monitoring was installed at an electric utility power generating station. This
innovation provided an automatic data acquisition capability. In 1959 and 1960, supervisory
computer control systems were installed in a refinery and in a chemical plant. In these
applications, analog controllers were still the primary means of control. The computer used the
available input data to calculate control set points. The next step in the evolution of computer
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process control was the use of the computer in the primary loop itself, in a mode usually known
as direct digital control or DDC. The first DDC system was installed in 1963 in a petrochemical
plant. For security, a backup analog control system was provided to ensure that process could
be run automatically in the event of a computer failure. The advantages of digital control over
analog control: tuning parameters and set points, complex control algorithms can be
implemented to improve plant operation, and control tuning parameters can be set adaptively
to track changing operating conditions. As the result of developments described above, two
industrial control system architectures came to dominate the scene by the end of the 1970s. The
typical examples of these architectures are shown in figure below.
4.1.3 Hybrid System Architecture
Figure 2. Hybrid System Architecture

The figure 2 shown in hybrid architecture one, making use of a combination of discrete
control hardware and computer hardware in a central location to implement the required control
functions. In this approach, first level or local control of the plant unit operations is
implemented by using discrete analog and sequential logic controllers. Panel board
instrumentation connected to these controllers is used for operator interfacing and is located in
the central control room area. A supervisory computer and associated data acquisition system
are used to implement the plant management functions, including operating point optimization,
alarming, data logging and historical data storage and retrieval. The computer also used to drive
its own operator interface, usually consisting of one or more video display units (VDUs).
4.1.4 Central Computer System Architecture
In this type is shown in Figure 3, all system functions are implemented in high-
performance computer hardware in a central location. In general, redundant computers are
required so that the failure of a single computer does not shut the whole process down. Operator
interfacing for plant management functions is provided using computer driven VDUs. Operator
interfacing for first-level continuous and sequential closed-loop control also may be
implemented using VDUs. Optionally, the computers can be interfaced to standard panel board
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instrumentation so that the operator in charge of first-level control can use a more familiar set
of control and display hardware. Note both of the above systems use computers. The main
difference between the two systems is the location of the implementation of the first level
continuous and sequential logic control functions.
Figure 3. Central Computer System Architecture

4.2 Distributed Control System (DCS) Architecture
Introduction: The biggest disadvantages of the centralized computer control
architecture is that the central processing unit (CPU) represents a single point process if it is
lost. Another problem with these computer-based systems has been that the software required
to implement all of the functions is extremely complex, and requires a priesthood of computer
experts to develop the system.
The centralized system is limited in its capability to accommodate change and
expansion. The disadvantages of hybrid system architecture has its deficiencies. It is composed
of many different subsystems. Starting them up and making them work as an integrated whole
is no less difficult task. The hybrid approach also is functionality limited compared to the
central computer based system.
The limitation of centralized computer system and hybrid system introduced distributed
control system shown in Figure 4. The devices in this (DCS) architecture are grouped into three
categories; those that interface directly to the process to be controlled or monitored, those that
perform high-level human interfacing and computing functions, and those that provide the
means of communication between the other devices. A brief definition of each device is given
below:
Local Control Unit (LCU): The smallest collection of hardware in the system that can
do closed loop control. The LCU interfaces directly to process.
Low Level Human Interface (LLHI): A device that allows the operator or instrument
engineer to interact with LCU (eg: to change set points, control modes, control configurations,
or tuning parameters) using a direct connection. LLHIs can also interface directly to the
process. Operator-oriented hardware at this level is called Low Level Operator Interface
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(LLOI); instrument engineer–oriented hardware is called a Low Level Engineering Interface
(LLEI).
Data Input / Output Unit (DI/OU): A device that interfaces to the process alone for the
purpose of acquiring or outputting data. It performs no control functions.
High Level Human Interfaces (HLHI): A collection of hardware that performs
functions similar to the LLHI but with increased capability and user friendliness. It interfaces
to other devices only over the shared communication facilities. Operated-oriented hardware at
this level is called a High Level Operator Interface (HLOI); instrument engineer-oriented
hardware is called a High Level Engineering Interface (HLEI).
High Level Computing Device (HLCD): A collection of microprocessor based
hardware that performs plant management functions traditionally performed by a plant
computer. It interfaces to other devices only over the shared communication facilities.
Figure 4. Generalized Distributed Control System

Computer Interface Device (CID): A collection of hardware that allows an external
general purpose computer to interact with devices in DCS using shared communication
facilities.
Shared Communication Facilities: One or more levels of communication hardware
and associated software that allow the sharing of data among all devices in DCS. Shared
communication facilities do not include dedicated communication channels between hardware
elements within the device.
4.3 Comparison of Architectures
The development of distributed control systems has been to maintain the best features
of the central computer control and hybrid architectures described.
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CENTRAL
FEATURE HYBRID DISTRIBUTED
COMPUTER
1. Scalability and Good - due to Poor – very limited Good - due to
expandability modularity. range of system size. modularity.
2. Control Limited – analog Full - digital control Full - digital control
capability and sequential capability. capability.
control hardware.
3.Operator Limited by panel Digital hardware Digital hardware
interfacing board provides significant provides improvement
capability instrumentation. improvement for large for full range of system
systems. sizes.
4. Integration of Poor - due to All functions Functions integrated in
system functions variety of products. performed by central a family of products.
computer.
5. Significance of Low - due to High. Low - due to
single point modularity. modularity.
failure
6. Installation High – discrete Medium- saves Low – savings in both
costs wiring, large control and equipment wiring costs and
volume of room space, but use equipment space.
equipment. discrete wiring.
7. Maintainability Poor –many Medium- requires Excellent - automatic
module types; few highly trained diagnostics and
diagnostics. computer maintenance module replacement.
personnel.
4.4 Local Control Unit (LCU)
The LCU is the smallest collection of hardware in the DCS that performs closed loop
control. That is, it takes inputs from process-measuring devices and commands from operator
and computes the control outputs needed to make the process follow the command. It then
sends control output to actuators, drives valves and other mechanical devices that regulate the
flows, temperatures, pressures, and other variables to be controlled in the plant. An LCU
malfunction can cause a condition that is hazardous to both people and equipment. Its proper
design is critical to the safe and efficient operation of the plant.
4.4.1 Basic Elements of a Microprocessor-Based Controller
The basic elements of a LCU are shown in figure 5. The microprocessor along with the
associated clock comprises the central processing unit (CPU) of the controller. ROM is used
for permanent storage of controller programs. RAM is used for temporary storage of
information. Depending upon the type of microprocessor used, RAM and ROM can be located
on the microprocessor chip or on separate memory chip. The LCU must have I/O circuitry so
that it can communicate with the external world by reading in, or receiving analog and digital
data as well as sending similar signals out. The CPU communicates with the other elements in
the LCU over an internal shared bus that transmits addressing, data control and status
information in addition to the data.
The controller structure shown in figure is the minimum required to perform basic
control functions. The control algorithms could be coded in assembly language and loaded into
ROM. After the controller was turned on, it would read inputs, execute the control algorithms,
and generate control inputs in a fixed cycle indefinitely. However, because the situation is not
this simple in industrial applications, the controller structure shown in figure must be enhanced
to include the following:
• Flexibility of changing control configuration.
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• Ability to use the controller without being computer expert.
• Ability to bypass the controller in case it fails so that the process still can be
controlled manually.
• Ability of the LCU to communicate with other LCUs and other elements in the
system.
Figure 5. Basic elements of a Local Control Unit

4.4.2 Different types of LCU Architectures
There are three configurations are shown in LCU architecture.
i) Configuration A ii) Configuration B and iii) Configuration C.
Configuration A: In configuration A the controller size is the minimum required to
perform a single loop of control or a single motor control function or other simple sequencing
function. LCU that provides both analog and digital inputs and outputs and executes both
continuous and logic function blocks. All outputs in the range of 0.1 to 0.5 seconds maximum.
Controller size: Number of functions needed for single PID loop or motor controller.
Controller functionality: Uses both continuous and logic function blocks.
Controller scalability: High degree of scalability from small to large systems.
Controller performance: Requirement can be met with simple and inexpensive set of
microprocessor based hardware.
Communication channels: Need inter module communications for control.
Controller output security: Controller has single loop integrity; usually only manual backup is
needed.
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Figure 6. LCU Architecture Configurations

Configuration B: Configuration B represents architecture in which two different types
of LCUs are used to provide the full range of required continuous and logic functions. Outputs
in the range of 0.1 to 0.5 seconds.
Controller Size: Includes functions and I/O needed for eight control loops and a small logic
controller.
Controller functionality: Continuous and logic function blocks split between controllers.
Controller scalability: Requires both types even in small systems.
Controller performance: Because of functional split, performance requirements are not
excessive. It is usually implemented using a high-performance eight bit or an average
performance 16bit microprocessor and matching memory components.
Communication channels: Functional separation requires close interface between controller
types.
Controller output security: Lack of single loop integrity requires redundancy in critical
applications.
Configuration C: Configuration C represents a multi loop controller architecture in
which both continuous and logic functions are performed. Outputs in the range of 0.5 seconds
of less.
Controller size: System size is equivalent to small DDC system.
Controller functionality: Uses both continuous and logic function blocks: can support high
level languages.
Controller scalability: Not scalable to very small systems.
Controller performance: Hardware must be high performance to execute large number of
functions. Usually implemented with one or more 16bit or 32bit microprocessor in conjunction
with support hardware such as arithmetic co processors to attain the required speed.
Communication channels: Large communication requirement to human interface: minimal
between controllers.
Controller output security: Size of controller requires redundancy in all applications.
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4.4.3 Comparison of LCU Architecture
CONFIGURATION CONFIGURATION CONFIGURATION
ARCHITECTURE
A B C
Parameters
(Single Loop) (2 LCU Types) (Multi-Loop)
1. Controller size Single PID loop or 8 control loops Small DDC system
motor controller Small logic controller
2. Controller Both continuous and Split between Can support high-
functionality logic blocks controllers level languages
3. Controller Small to large Both even in small Not very small

scalability systems systems systems
4. Controller Simple & Requirements not High performance to
performance Inexpensive excessive execute large no. of
microprocessor based functions
hardware
5. Communication Need inter module Close interface Large- human
channels communications for between controller interface, min- bet
control; min. need for types controllers
human interface
6. Controller output Controller has single Lack of single loop Requires redundancy
security loop integrity; Only integrity; requires in all application
manual backup redundancy in critical
application
4.5 LCU-Process Interfacing Issues

Figure 7 shows a block diagram illustrating these other interfaces from the point of
view of the LCU. This figure expands on the basic LCU elements through the addition of
interfaces to external communication facilities and to a low-level human interface device. The
communication interfaces permit the LCU to interact with the rest of the distributed system to
accomplish several functions:
• To allow several LCUs to implement control strategies that is larger in scope than
possible with a single LCU.
• To allow transmission of process data to higher-level elements.
• To allow these Higher-level elements to transmit information requests and control
commands to the LCUs.
• To allow two or more LCUs to act together as redundant controllers to perform the
same control or computational functions.
• To augment I/O capability of LCUs with that of data input/output units in system.
The LLHI device and its associated interface hardware allow several important human
interfacing functions to be accomplished through hardware that is connected directly to the
LCU rather than over the shared communication facilities. These functions include:
• Allowing the plant operator to select control set points and controller modes.
• Allowing the plant operator to override automatic equipment and control the process
manually in case of a controller hardware failure of other system malfunction.
• Allowing the plant instrumentation engineer to Configure control system logic and later
tune control system parameters.
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Figure 7. LCU Interfaces to Distributed System Elements

4.6 Security Design Issues for LCU
4.6.1 Security Requirements
The first priority of the user of any process control system is to keep the process running
under safe operating conditions. One way of designing a highly reliable control system is to
manufacture it using only the highest quality of components, conduct extensive burn-in testing
of the hardware, and implement other quality control measures in the production process. The
security objectives necessary in designing a DCS in the following hierarchy:
• Maximize availability of automatic control functions of the system. Failure of a single
control system element does not shut all automatic control functions.
• Automatic control to manual control, if a portion of the control system failure happens.
• If critical (both automatic and manual function) failure, operator can shut down the
process in an orderly and safe manner.
4.6.2 Overview of Security Design Approaches
There are three basic categories of security approaches currently in use.
i) Manual backup only.
ii) Hot standby redundant controller.
iii) Multiple active controllers.
i) Provide manual backup only: In this case, each LCU is designed to implement only
one or two control loops, and the operator take over manual control in case of a failure of the
LCU. The control output is fed back to the manual backup station and to the computation
section of the controller so that inactive element can synchronize its output with the active
element. This ensures that the out to the process will not be bumped when a switchover from
the active to the inactive device occurs.
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Figure 8. Manual Backup Approach

ii) Provide a standby redundant controller: In this case, the LCU is backed up by
another LCU that takes over if the primary controller fails. In this way, full automatic control
is maintained even under failure conditions. The control output is fed back to both controllers
to allow bump less transfer to be accomplished.
Figure 9. Hot Standby Redundancy Approach

iii) Provide multiple active controllers: In this case, several LCUs are active at the same
time in reading process inputs, calculating control algorithms, and producing control outputs
to the process. Since only one output can be used at a time, voting circuitry selects the valid
outputs. Failure of one of the controllers does not affect the automatic control function. The
selected control output is fed back so that each controller can compare its own output with the
output generated by the voting device.
Figure 10. Multiple Active Redundant Controllers
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4.6.3 Secure Control Output Design
Techniques to improve security of the control output circuitry:
• Minimum output in D/A converters.
• Safe level when LCU fails (both analog and digital).
• Independent power supply for control output and rest of LCU.
• Actual value of output to be read back by rest of the LCUs.
• Minimum number of components and electrical connections between control output
hardware and field terminating point.
4.6.3.1 Multiplexed Control Output Configuration
Figure 11. Multiplexed Control Output Configuration

In this scheme (in Figure 11), a single D/A converter is used to produce several control
outputs by including an analog multiplexer in the circuitry. To generate each output, the
microprocessor writes the proper values to the output register shown, and the D/A converter
generates a corresponding analog voltage.
At effectively the same time, the processor instructs the multiplexer to switch the output
of the D/A converter to the proper hold circuit. This hold circuit is an analog memory that
stores the output value and causes the current driver to generate the appropriate output current,
usually in the 4-20mA range. Then the processor writes the next output value into the register
and directs the D/A converter output to the next hold circuit through the MUX. This process
occurs on a cyclic basis at least several times per second.
4.6.3.2 Secure Control Output Configuration
In this case (in Figure 12), the D/A converter is dedicated to generating a single control
output. Also provision is made to allow the processor to “read back” the value of the control
output. This is done by means of a current-to-voltage converter and an A/D converter.
The processor uses this capability to verify that the control output has been generated
correctly. In some systems, a known reference voltage is switched into the A/D converter and
the processor checks the output value of the converter.
The processor can then take into account and correct any errors that occur in the process
of reading the A/D converter output and generating the control output values to the D/A
converter.
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Figure 12. Secure Control Output Configuration

4.6.3.3 Pulsed Control Output Configuration
Figure 13. Pulsed Control Output Configuration

In this case (in Figure 13), the LCU processor is directly involved in the output
generation process by generating raise and lower command to an up/down counter in the output
channel.
This counter responds the commands by incrementing or decrementing a digital value
in memory. This value is fed to the D/A converter, which generates a control output through
the current driver.
The processor keeps track of the output through the current-to-voltage converter and
A/D converter circuitry shown and manipulates the raise and lower commands until the output
reaches the desired value.
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4.6.3.4 Secure Digital Output Configuration
Figure 14. Secure Digital Output Configuration

An output read back capability also can be added to this configuration if desired. The
failsafe output selection section is much simpler in the digital output case than in analog one.
In the digital case, there are only two states (0 or 1) and selecting and generating the safe state
is a relatively straight forward process.
4.7 Redundant Controller Design
Guidelines to follow designing redundant control system.
1. Redundant architecture should be simple as possible. At some point more hardware
reduces system reliability.
2. The architecture must minimize potential single points of failure. The redundant
hardware elements must be as independent as possible so that the failure of any one
does not bring the rest down as well.
3. The redundant nature of the controller configuration should be transparent to the user;
that is, the user should be able to deal with the redundant system in the same way as a
non-redundant one.
4. The process should not be bumped when failure occurs.
5. After a control element has failed, the system should not rely on control element till
replacement.
6. Hot spare replacement; replace failed elements without shut down.
Several approaches to designing a redundant LCU architecture:
i) CPU redundancy
ii) One-on-one redundancy
iii) One-on-many redundancy
iv) Multiple active redundancy
4.7.1 CPU Redundancy
The configuration shown in figure only the CPU portion of the LCU is redundant, while
the I/O circuitry is not redundant. The CPU is redundant because its failure affects all of the
control outputs. Only one of the CPUs is active in reading inputs, performing control
computations, and generating control outputs at any one time. The user designates the primary
CPU through the priority arbitrator circuitry, using a switch setting or other mechanism. The
arbitrator monitors the operation of the primary CPU, if it detects a failure in the primary, the
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arbitrator transfers priority to the backup. During operation, the backup CPU periodically
updates its internal memory by reading the state of the primary CPU through the arbitrator.
Figure 15. CPU Redundancy Configuration

While both CPUs are connected to the plant communication system, only the primary
is active in transmitting and receiving messages over this link. The main operator and
engineering interface in this system is the high-level human interface. A CRT-based video
display unit that interfaces with the LCU as if it were non-redundant. Only the primary CPU
will accept control commands or configuration and tuning changes transmitted by the VDU.
4.7.2 One-on-One Backup Redundancy
Figure 16. One-on-One Backup Redundancy

The remaining three redundancy approaches provide for redundancy in the control
output circuitry as well as in the CPU hardware. Most of these architectures do not provide a
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low-level operator interface for manual backup purposes. The approach provides a total backup
LCU to the primary LCU. The control output circuitry is duplicated in this case; an output
switching block must be included to transfer the outputs when the controller fails. As in the
first redundant configuration, a priority arbitrator designates the primary and backup LCUs and
activates the backup if a failure in the primary is detected. In this configuration, the arbitrator
has the additional responsibility of sending a command to the output switching circuitry, if the
primary LCU fails, causing the backup LCU to generate the control outputs. Communication
with the high-level human interface are handled in the same way as in the CPU redundant
configuration.
The main advantages of the one-on-one configuration, compared to the previous CPU
redundant approach, are that no manual backup is needed. It eliminates any questions that may
arise with a partial redundancy approach.
4.7.3 One-on-Many Backup Redundancy
More cost effective approach to redundancy. Single LCU is used as a hot standby to
back up any one of several primary LCUs. In other configurations, an arbitrator is required to
monitor the status of the primaries and switch in the backup when a failure occurs. In this case,
there is no way of knowing ahead of time which primary controller the backup would have to
replace. A general switching matrix is necessary to transfer the I/O from the failed controller
to the backup. This configuration is loaded into the backup LCU from the primary LCU only
after the primary has failed. This approach violates the second and fifth design guidelines list.
A better approach would be to store a copy of each primary LCU’s control configuration in the
arbitrator. When an LCU failure occurs, the arbitrator could then load the proper configuration
into the backup LCU.
Figure 17. One-on-Many Backup Redundancy

4.7.4 Multiple Active Redundancy
Three or more redundant LCUs are used to perform the same control functions
performed by one in the non-redundant configuration. In this one all of the redundant
controllers are active at the same time in reading process inputs, computing the control
calculation, and generating control outputs to the process. Each LCU has access to all of the
process inputs needed to implement the control configuration. An output voting device selects
one of the valid control outputs from the controllers and transmits it to the control process.
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Figure 18. Multiple Active Redundancy

When a controller fails, it is designed to generate an output outside the normal range.
The output voting device will then discard this output as an invalid one. The voting device is
designed to select the signal generated by at least two out of the three controllers.
The main advantage of this approach is that, as long as the output voting device is
designed for high reliability, it significantly increases the reliability of the control system.
4.8 Process Input / Output Design Issues
4.8.1 Input / Output Requirements
The first dimension is simply the large variety of input/output signals that the control
system must handle in order to interface with sensors, analyzers, transmitters, control actuators
and other field mounted equipment.
The second problem in providing cost effective I/O hardware is the wide range of input
and output performance specifications that are imposed to facilitate interfacing with various
types of field equipment.
• Common and normal mode voltage rejection.
• Voltage isolation between terminal and system elements.
• Input impedance requirements.
• Ability to drive loads.
The third dimension to the I/O problem is the varying degree of I/O “hardening”
required in different applications.
• No hardening is required- application requires low-cost hardware.
• Application is in a hazardous environment- I/O hardware must be designed to be
explosion proof.
• Field mounted equipment is subject to lightning strikes or large induced voltage spikes-
I/O hardware must be designed to withstand high level voltage surges.
• Field mounted equipment is subject to Radio frequency Interference (RFI)- I/O
hardware must be shielded, filtered or isolated from RFI environment to minimize or
eliminate errors due to this type of noise.
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4.9 Communication Facilities
Figure 19. Conventional Point-to-Point Wiring

Conventional Point-to-Point Wiring: In conventional non-distributed control systems,
the connections that allow communication between the various system elements. This system
consists of a combination of continues controllers, sequential controllers, data acquisition
hardware, panelborad instrumentation, and a computer system.
The controllers communicate with each other by means of point-to-point wiring. This
approach to interconnecting system elements has proven to be expensive to design and check
out, difficult to change, burdensome to document, and subject to errors.
• Advantage:
– In conventional system communication between system elements travels at the
speed of light with zero delay.
– No overloading a channel.
• Disadvantage:
– Expensive to design.
– Difficult to change.
– Subject to errors.
Communication Facility as a “Black Box”: When DCS were introduced in the late
1970s; the use of digital communications was extended to control-oriented systems as well.
The communication system began to be viewed as a facility that the various elements and
devices in the distributed network share as “black box”, replace the point to point wiring and
cabling.
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Figure 20. Communication Facility as a “Black Box”

• Advantage:
– Cost of plant wiring is reduced because 1000 of wires are replaced by the few
cables or buses used to implement shared communication system.
– Flexibility of marking changes increases because of it is software
configuration.
– Less time to implement large system since the wiring labor is nearly
eliminated, Configuration error reduced.
– Control is more reliable due to reduction in physical connection. So failure is
easily identified.
• Disadvantage:
– Delay occurs between communication systems.
4.9.1 Communication System Requirements
• Minimize delay and maximize security transmission.
• Transmission of process variables, control variables, and Alarm status information from
LCU to HLHI, and LLHI in the system.
• Communication of special commands, operating modes, control variables from the
HLHI to LCU for the purpose of supervisory control.
• Down loading of control system configuration, tuning parameters and user programs
from HLHI to LCUs.
• Transmission of information from data input/output unit to high level computing
devices for the purpose of data acquisition.
• Transfer of large block of data (data base) / programs from one high level computing
devices to another high level computing devices or low level computing devices.
• Synchronization of real time among all of the elements in the DCS.
4.9.2 Communication System Performance Requirements
• Maximum size of the system.
– Distance; number of devices.
• Maximum delay time through the system.
• Interaction between LCU architecture and communication facility.
• Rate of undetected errors occurring in the system.
• Sensitivity to traffic loading.
• System scalability.
• System fault tolerance.
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• Interfacing requirements.
• Ease of application and maintenance.
• Environment specification.
4.9.3 Architecture Issues
4.9.3.1 Channel Structure
The first decision to make in evaluating or designing a communications facility is
whether to choose a parallel or serial link as the communication medium.
Parallel: Multiple conductors or wire to carry a combination of data and handshaking
signal. It provides a higher message throughput rate than does the serial approach.
Disadvantages:
– More cost.
– Arrive data at different time if distance between nodes become large (IEEE 488
BUS).
Serial: Uses only a single coaxial cable, fibre optic link, or pair of wires.
Advantages:
– Cable cost is less.
– Long distance.
– Use baseband signal.
4.9.3.2 Levels of Subnetworks
Sub network is defined to be a self-contained communication system:
• It has own address structure.
• Allows communications among elements connected to it using a specific protocol.
• Allows communication between elements directly connected to it and elements in other
sub networks through an interface device that “translates” the message addresses and
protocols of the two subnetworks.
• Local subnetwork- Located in central control room. Allow high level devices to
intercommunicate.
• Plant level subnetwork –Interconnect the control room elements with the distributed
elements in process.
Figure 21. Communication system Partitioning -example1

__________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 22. Communication system Partitioning -example 2

4.9.4 Communication System Standards
Communication protocol is a system of rules that allow two or more entities of
a communications system to transmit information via any kind of variation of a physical
quantity.
The protocol defines the rules syntax, semantics and synchronization of communication and
possible error recovery methods. Protocols may be implemented by hardware, software, or a
combination of both.
4.9.4.1 Computer-Aided Measurement And Control (CAMAC) is a standard
bus and modular-crate electronics standard for data acquisition and control used in particle
detectors for nuclear and particle physics and in industry. The bus allows data exchange
between plug-in modules (up to 24 in a single crate) and a crate controller, which then
interfaces to a PC or to a VME-CAMAC interface. Several standards have been defined for
multiple crate systems, including the Parallel Branch Highway definition and Serial Highway
definition.
The CAMAC standard encompasses IEEE standards:
• 583 The base standard
• 683 Block transfer specifications (Q-stop and Q-scan)
• 596 Parallel Branch Highway systems
• 595 Serial highway system
• 726 Real-time Basic for CAMAC
• 675 Auxiliary crate controller specification/support
• 758 FORTRAN subroutines for CAMAC.
Within the dataway, modules are addressed by slot (geographical addressing). The left-
most 22 slots are available for application modules while the right-most two slots are dedicated
to a crate controller. Within a slot the standard defines 16 subaddresses (0–15). A slot
commanded by the controller with one of 32 function codes (0–31). Of these function codes,
__________________________________________________________________________________
0–7 are read functions and will transfer data to the controller from the addressed module, while
16–23 are write function codes which will transfer data from the controller to the module.
4.9.4.2 IEEE 488 BUS:

IEEE 488 is a short-range digital communications 8-bit parallel multi-master interface
bus specification. IEEE 488 was created as HP-IB (Hewlett-Packard Interface Bus) and is
commonly called GPIB (General Purpose Interface Bus). It has been the subject of
several standards.
IEEE 488 specifies a 24-pin Amphenol-designed micro ribbon connector. Micro
ribbon connectors have a D-shaped metal shell, but are larger than D-subminiature connectors.
They are sometimes called "Centronics connectors" after the 36-pin micro ribbon
connector Centronics used for their printers.
One unusual feature of IEEE 488 connectors is they commonly use a "double-headed"
design, with male on one side, and female on the other. This allows stacking connectors for
easy daisy-chaining. Mechanical considerations limit the number of stacked connectors to four
or fewer, although a workaround involving physically supporting the connectors may be able
to get around this.
Figure 23. Female IEEE 488 connector

Pin 1 DIO1 Data input/output bit. Pin 13 DIO5 Data input/output bit.
Pin 5 EOI End-or-identify. Pin 17 REN Remote enable.
Pin 6 DAV Data valid. Pin 18 GND (wire twisted with DAV)
Pin 7 NRFD Not ready for data. Pin 19 GND (wire twisted with NRFD)
Pin 8 NDAC Not data accepted. Pin 20 GND (wire twisted with NDAC)
Pin 9 IFC Interface clear. Pin 21 GND (wire twisted with IFC)
Pin 10 SRQ Service request. Pin 22 GND (wire twisted with SRQ)
Pin 11 ATN Attention. Pin 23 GND (wire twisted with ATN)
Pin 12 SHIELD Pin 24 Logic ground
__________________________________________________________________________________
4.9.4.3 PROWAY (PROcess data highWAY):
Data Highway allows you to communicate with a variety of devices, including:
programmable controllers, computers, RS-232-C/RS-422 devices. Fisher Instrumentation
systems color graphics systems Data Highway works with various devices and software
packages. You can use Data Highway alone or combine it with Data Highway Plus as part of
a plant-wide Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) facility.
4.9.4.4 IEEE 802 Network:
EEE 802 is a family of IEEE standards dealing with local area
networks and metropolitan area networks. More specifically, the IEEE 802 standards are
restricted to networks carrying variable-size packets. By contrast, in cell relay networks data is
transmitted in short, uniformly sized units called cells. Isochronous , where data is transmitted
as a steady stream of octets, or groups of octets, at regular time intervals, are also out of the
scope of this standard. The number 802 was simply the next free number IEEE could assign.
The services and protocols specified in IEEE 802 map to the lower two layers (Data
Link and Physical) of the seven-layer OSI networking reference model. In fact, IEEE 802 splits
the OSI Data Link Layer into two sub-layers named logical link control (LLC) and media
access control (MAC), so the layers can be listed like this:
• Data link layer
• LLC sublayer
• MAC sublayer
• Physical layer
The IEEE 802 family of standards is maintained by the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Standards
Committee (LMSC). The most widely used standards are for the Ethernet family, Token Ring,
Wireless LAN, Bridging and Virtual Bridged LANs. An individual working group provides
the focus for each area.
4.10 Network Topologies

The LANs (local area network) and WANs (wireless area network) are used
communication for Geographical coverage.
LANs
– A single geographical location, such as office building, school, etc
– Typically High speed and cheaper.
WANs
– Spans more than one geographical location often connecting separated LANs
– Slower
– Costly hardware, routers, dedicated leased lines and complicated implementation rocedures.
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN):
A LAN is a data communication network which connects many computers or work stations
and permits exchange of data between them.
• Topology - Physical and logical network layout
– Physical – actual layout of the computer cables and other network devices
– Logical – the way in which the network appears to the devices that use it.
• Common topologies:
– Most commonly used topologies are Bus, ring, star, mesh and wireless.
Bus topology
• Uses a trunk or backbone to which all of the computers on the network connect.
• Systems connect to this backbone using T connectors or taps.
• Coaxial cablings (10Base-2, 10Base5) were popular options years ago.
Advantages Disadvantages
Cheap and easy to implement Network disruption when computers are
added or removed
__________________________________________________________________________________
Require less cable A break in the cable will prevent all systems
from accessing the network.
Does not use any specialized network Difficult to troubleshoot.
equipment.
Ring Topology
• Logical ring – Meaning that data travels in circular fashion from one computer to another on
the network.
– Typically FDDI, SONET or Token Ring technology are used to implement a ring
network
– Ring networks are most commonly wired in a star configuration
• Token Ring has multi-station access unit (MSAU), equivalent to hub or switch. MSAU
performs the token circulation internally.
Cable faults are easily located, making Expansion to the network can cause network
troubleshooting easier disruption
Ring networks are moderately easy to install A single break in the cable can disrupt the
entire network.
Star Topology
• All computers/devices connect to a central device called hub or switch.
• Each device requires a single cable
• point-to-point connection between the device and hub.
• Most widely implemented
• Hub is the single point of failure
Easily expanded without disruption to the Requires more cable
network
Cable failure affects only a single user A central connecting device allows for a
single point of failure
Easy to troubleshoot and isolate problems More difficult to implement
Mesh Topology
• Each computer connects to every other.
• High level of redundancy.
• Rarely used.
– Wiring is very complicated
– Cabling cost is high
– Troubleshooting a failed cable is tricky
__________________________________________________________________________________
– A variation hybrid mesh – create point to point connection between specific network devices,
often seen in WAN implementation.
Provides redundant paths between devices Requires more cable than the other
LAN topologies
The network can be expanded without Complicated implementation
disruption to current uses
Wireless networking
• Do not require physical cabling
• Particularly useful for remote access for laptop users
• Eliminate cable faults and cable breaks.
• Signal interference and security issue.
Allows for wireless remote access Potential security issues associated with
wireless transmissions
Network can be expanded without Limited speed in comparison to other
disruption to current users network topologies
__________________________________________________________________________________

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EI6702 Logic and Distributed Control System Unit IV- Distributed Control System

Unit IV - DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM

Figure 1. Evolution of Industrial Control Technology

Figure 2. Hybrid System Architecture

Figure 3. Central Computer System Architecture

Figure 4. Generalized Distributed Control System

Figure 5. Basic elements of a Local Control Unit

Figure 6. LCU Architecture Configurations

3. Controller Small to large Both even in small Not very small

4.5 LCU-Process Interfacing Issues

Figure 7. LCU Interfaces to Distributed System Elements

Figure 8. Manual Backup Approach

Figure 9. Hot Standby Redundancy Approach

Figure 10. Multiple Active Redundant Controllers

Figure 11. Multiplexed Control Output Configuration

Figure 12. Secure Control Output Configuration

Figure 13. Pulsed Control Output Configuration

Figure 14. Secure Digital Output Configuration

Figure 15. CPU Redundancy Configuration

Figure 16. One-on-One Backup Redundancy

Figure 17. One-on-Many Backup Redundancy

Figure 18. Multiple Active Redundancy

Figure 19. Conventional Point-to-Point Wiring

Figure 20. Communication Facility as a “Black Box”

Figure 21. Communication system Partitioning -example1

Figure 22. Communication system Partitioning -example 2

4.9.4.2 IEEE 488 BUS:

Figure 23. Female IEEE 488 connector

Pin 5 EOI End-or-identify. Pin 17 REN Remote enable.

Pin 11 ATN Attention. Pin 23 GND (wire twisted with ATN)

Pin 12 SHIELD Pin 24 Logic ground

4.10 Network Topologies

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