URBAN DESIGN

Lecture 6

Regulators of Urban Form

Types of Urban Controls

Kiran Joshi

Chitkara School of Planning and Architecture, B. Architecture – VIII Semester, January - May 2008
 COURSE CONTENT
UNIT – I UNIT – II UNIT – III
Introduction to the role and scope Types of Urban Spaces – street, Role of Legislation and
of Urban Design. Comparison with square, precinct, piazza, etc. Controls in design of the built
‘architecture’ and ‘town planning’ Various elements of Urban Space – environment
Determinants of Urban Form such their identification, characteristics
as landform, climate, symbolism, and role in the shaping of the Types of Urban Controls –
activity patterns,
patterns socio-cultural
socio cultural space. FAR, Incentive Zoning, Density,
factors, materials and techniques
Design principles – Scale and Planned Unit Development,
and other contextual references.
Enclosure Building Height, Building Bulk,
Case examples from various
periods in history and different Changing role of urban spaces etc., Special Provisions of
parts of the world. through history. Role of public Town Planning Acts
Vocabulary of Urban Design. places in the contemporary city.
Urban Pattern, grain, texture, Case studies of well-known urban
density, etc. spaces from various periods of
Concepts of Imageability. history to illustrate their design and
Elements of the City’s Image. performance aspects
Paths, Nodes, Landmarks, Edges
and Districts – their
characteristics,
h t i ti rolel andd INTENT
interrelationships. To appreciate the nature and role of various facets of
Designing parts of the city:
systems of Communication, and Urban Design in the making of the Built Environment
utilities visual expression
utilities, expression, accent
and contrasts, urban character,
landscape features and city
extension areas.
 RECAPITULATION OF LECTURE 5
Urban Conttrols

WHAT ARE ‘URBAN URBAN CONTROLS

CONTROLS’
At no stage in the growth of a human settlement can one
predict its total or ultimate form – development takes place in
Urban Form: Types of U

space and d titime, and,

d iis subject
bj t to
t social,
i l economic,
i political,
liti l
technological , and, several other stresses

The Purpose of “Urban Controls” or “Urban Regulatory

Measures” is, thus, to create a system of development that
will permit the realization of form in which an urban settlement
gulators of U

is conceived, and, which will give the designers’ hand the

strength of law.
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 RECAPITULATION OF LECTURE 5
DEVELOPMENT OF REGULATORY MEASURES
Urban Conttrols

Formal Beginning around mid-19th century

Instituted to clarify boundaries of ‘public’ and ‘private’ domain –
Social, health and safety requirements began to be major regulators of
urban form (Adoption of Housing Codes
Codes, Regulations for fire-
Urban Form: Types of U

prevention, etc.)

IMPORTANT LAWS / DATES

1916 – Pioneering ‘Zoning Laws’ in New York -- Necessitated by threat
to property values posed by 40-storey Equitable Building that cut off
light and air from its adjoining plots -- Led to the ‘Zoning’ / public
gulators of U

regulations ensuring adequate light and air

1926 – “Standard
“St d d E Enabling
bli Legislation”
L i l ti ” – empowered
d state
t t & city
it
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governments to prepare zoning plans, etc.

1954 – Supreme
S Court
C t off USA ddecided
id d th
thatt aesthetics
th ti was a jjustt public
bli
concern worthy of support by law.
 RECAPITULATION OF LECTURE 5
ELEMENTS AFFECTED BY URBAN CONTROLS:
Urban Conttrols

Urban Controls affect anything that plays a role,

role or
or, occurs in the design of
the ‘public realm’ – i.e., spaces as well as objects in space –
Constructed Volumes ((individual & occurring g in groups).
g p ) Features affected
Urban Form; Types of U

-- form, scale, skyline, spatial setting, façade, materials, colour, etc.

Open Spaces / Urban Spaces: Features affected – Scale, degree of
enclosure,, surface contour,, floorscape,
p , landscaping,
p g, street furniture
Circulation Channels: Features affected – size, right-of-way, flanking
buildings, trees, hoardings, and, all such elements seem on or from such
channels
gulators of U

Public Services, including electric supply lines, telephone lines, drainage,

water supply, etc. and the manner of taking connections from the public
supply lines to private / individual property
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 RECAPITULATION -- ELEMENTS AFFECTED BY URBAN CONTROLS
CONSTRUCTED URBAN VOLUMES – two general groups:
Urban Conttrols

B ilt by
Built b the
th state
t t / Government
G t for
f Public
P bli Use
U
Privately Built , but Open to Public View
Individual owner -- in his attempt to satisfy his own need of space
Urban Form: Types of U

at minimum costs, to obtain maximum economic returns, and,

satisfy his own ‘ego’ in building – may be unaware of his
neighbours’ action and largely ignorant of totality of urban form
Needs maximum legislative, regulatory measures
gulators of U

We must also recognize that every major element of a community tangibly

affects certain other areas as well –
Road building g programmes
p g are prime
p elements that are required
q to
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relate to all the aspects of the community they pass through –

Improved access means increased pace of development –
we,, thus,, require
q creation of open
p areas commensurate
with an accompanying highway construction
 RECAPITULATION OF LECTURE 5
PRESENT REGULATORY MEASURES
Urban Conttrols

THE CITY’S MASTER PLAN -- an overall urban concept, an idea:

Document showing g major
j components
p of the cityy – Layout
y of Roads
Urban Form: Types of U

of various categories; Disposition / location of major functions;

Public land for parks, bus stations, other public uses; Broad
densities FARs,…
densities, FARs --

ZONING ORDINANCE -- enforcement of Master Plan:

A sett off specifications
ifi ti with
ith LEGAL backing
b ki
gulators of U

Most forceful regulator of urban form and the appearance of cities

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SUBDIVISION REGULATIONS -- Physical extensions of ‘zoning’:

More clear statement of building form and community character
Specify size of front and rear yard,
yard minimum coverage
coverage, sometimes
materials, fenestration, etc.
OTHER REGULATORY MEASURES

F.A.R.,
F A R DENSITY,
DENSITY
BUILDING HEIGHT,
BUILDING BULK

ZONING
(Euclidean, Performance,
Incentive, Form-based)
 FLOOR AREA RATIO (F A R)
Floor Area Ratio (FAR) or Floor Space Index (FSI) :
Urban Conttrols

FAR is the ratio – or the limit imposed on the ratio – of

the total floor area of buildings on a certain location to
the size of the land of that location.
Urban Form: Types of U

As a formula: Floor Area Ratio = (Total covered area on

all floors of all buildings on a certain plot)/(Area of the
plot) . Thus
Thus, a FAR of 200 (or FSI of 22.0)
0) would indicate
A FAR of 1.0
that the total floor area of a building is two times the
gross area of the plot on which it is constructed.
gulators of U

The Floor Area Ratio Control can be used in Zoning Legislation to limit the
amount of construction in a certain area.
area It is generally used together with
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other controls of “Permissible Ground /Floor Coverage,” “Building Height,”

“Building Bulk,” etc.

By combining the horizontal and vertical limits into a single figure, some
flexibility is permitted in building design.
 ZONING
Zoning -- a system of regulating land-use in cities.
Urban Conttrols

The word is derived from the practice of designating permitted uses of land,
based on specific zones which separate one set of land uses from another.
Urban Form: Types of U

Theoretically, the primary purpose of zoning is to segregate uses that are

thought to be incompatible;

In practice, zoning is used as a permitting(enabling) system to prevent new

development from harming existing residents or activities.
gulators of U

Zoning may include regulation of the kinds of activities which will be

acceptable on particular sites (residential, commercial, etc.), the densities at
which
hi h th
those activities
ti iti can bbe performed
f d , th
the height
h i ht off buildings,
b ildi th amountt
the
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of space structures may occupy, the location of a building on the lot , the
proportions of the types of space on a lot (for example, how much green
area anddhhow much hh hard
d area),
) hhow muchh parking
ki mustt be b provided,
id d etc.
t
 TYPES OF ZONING -- 1
Urban Conttrols

TYPES OF ZONING

Zoning
g codes have evolved over the yyears with changesg in urban
Urban Form: Types of U

planning changes in legal constraints , and in political priorities.

Approaches to zoning can be divided into four broad categories:

Euclidean Zoning,
gulators of U

P f
Performance Zoning,
Z i
Incentive Zoning,
Form-based Zoning g
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 TYPES OF ZONING – 1
Euclidean EUCLIDEAN
Urban Conttrols

Performance
I
Incentive
ti Type of zoning code first adopted in the town of Euclid,
Euclid Ohio
Form-based
State, USA. Euclidean codes are the most prevalent of all types.

Also known as "Building Block" zoning

zoning, characterized by:
Urban Form: Types of U

-- segregation of land uses into specified geographic districts

-- dimensional standards stipulating limitations on the extent of
d l
development t that
th t is
i allowed
ll d to
t take
t k place
l on plots
l t within
ithi each
h
type of district.
gulators of U

Land-Use
L d U Districts:
Di i
--Typical types of land-use districts: residential (single-family),
residential (multi-family), commercial, and industrial.
-- Uses within each district are usually heavily prescribed to
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exclude other types of uses (residential districts typically

disallow commercial or industrial uses).
-- Some "accessory" or "conditional" uses may be allowed in
order to accommodate the needs of the primary uses.
 TYPES OF ZONING -- 2
Euclidean EUCLIDEAN ZONING
Urban Conttrols

Performance
I
Incentive
ti
Form-based
Dimensional standards:
-- apply to any structures built on lots within each zoning district
-- typically take the form of setbacks,
setbacks height limits
limits, minimum plot
Urban Form: Types of U

sizes, plot coverage limits, and other limitations on the building

envelope.

Characteristic Features:
gulators of U

E lid
Euclidean zoning
i iis utilized
ili d bbecause off iits relative
l i effectiveness,
ff i
ease of implementation (one set of explicit, prescriptive rules),
long-established legal precedent, and familiarity to planners and
design professionals.
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However, Euclidean zoning has received heavy criticism for its

lack of flexibility and institutionalization of now-outdated planning
theory.
 TYPES OF ZONING -- 3
Euclidean PERFORMANCE ZONING
Urban Conttrols

Performance
I
Incentive
ti
Form-based
Also known as "Effects-based planning“
Urban Form: Types of U

Performance Zoning uses ‘performance-based’, or,

‘goal-oriented’ criteria to establish review parameters for
proposed
p p development
p projects
p j in anyy area.

Performance Zoning often utilizes a "points-based" system

whereby a property developer can apply credits toward
gulators of U

meeting established zoning goals through selecting from a

'menu' of compliance options -- (some examples include:
mitigation off environmental impacts, providing public
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amenities, building affordable housing units, etc.).

 TYPES OF ZONING -- 4
Euclidean PERFORMANCE ZONING
Urban Conttrols

Performance
I
Incentive
ti
Form-based
Characteristic Features:
The appeal of Performance Zoning lies in its high level of
Urban Form: Types of U

fflexibility, rationality, transparency and accountability.

Performance Zoning g avoids the arbitraryy nature of the

Euclidean approach, and accommodates market principles
and private property rights with environmental protection
more effectively.
effectively
gulators of U

However, Performance Zoning can be extremely difficult to

i l
implement t and
d can require
i a high
hi h level
l l off discretionary
di ti
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activity on the part of the supervising authority.

 TYPES OF ZONING -- 5
Euclidean
Urban Conttrols

Performance
I
Incentive
i INCENTIVE ZONING
Form-based

First implemented in Chicago and New York City, Incentive Zoning

is intended to provide a ‘reward-based’
‘reward based’ system to encourage
Urban Form: Types of U

development that meets established urban development goals.

For example,
F l IIncentive
ti Zoning
Z i may allow
ll developers
d l more ddensity
it
in exchange for community improvements, i.e., for including
some community improvements in their projects.
gulators of U

Such community improvements may include features such as

additional open space, affordable housing, special building
features, public art, etc.
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 TYPES OF ZONING -- 6
Euclidean INCENTIVE ZONING PROCESS & ITS FEATURES
Urban Conttrols

Performance
I
Incentive
i -- Typically,
Typically a base level of regulatory limitations on development
Form-based and an extensive list of incentive criteria will be established for
developers to adopt at their will.
-- A reward scale connected to the incentive criteria provides an
Urban Form: Types of U

enticement for developers to incorporate the desired

development criteria into their projects.
-- Common examples include FAR bonuses for affordable housing
provided on-site and height limit bonuses for the inclusion of
public amenities on-site.
gulators of U

-- Incentive zoning allows for a high degree of flexibility, but can

be complex to administer. The more a proposed development
t k advantage
takes d t off incentive
i ti criteria,
it i the
th more closely
l l it h has tto
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be reviewed on a discretionary basis.

--The initial creation of the incentive structure in order to best
serve planning priorities can also be challenging, and, often
requires extensive ongoing revision to maintain balance
between incentive amount and value given to developers.
 of Urban Controls TYPES OF ZONING -- 7
Euclidean FORM-BASED ZONING
Performance
I
Incentive
ti
Form-based -- Form-based zoning relies on rules applied to development sites
according to both rigid as well as potentially flexible criteria.
m: Types o

-- These criteria are typically dependent on plot size, location,

proximity, and other various site, and, use-specific
characteristics.
characteristics
Urban Form

Characteristic Features:
-- Form-based
F b d codes
d offer
ff considerably
id bl more flexibility
fl ibilit in
i bbuilding
ildi
e 6: Regulaators of U

uses than do Euclidean codes, but, may be more challenging to

create and administer.

-- When form-based codes do not contain appropriate illustrations

and diagrams, they can be very difficult to interpret.
Lecture
 TYPES OF ZONING --8
Euclidean
FORM-BASED ZONING
Urban Conttrols

Performance
I
Incentive
ti
Form-based
One example of a recently adopted code with design-based
features is the “Land Development Code” adopted by Louisville,
Urban Form: Types of U

Kentucky, USA in 2003.

This zoning code creates "form districts" for Louisville Metro.

Each form district intends to recognize that some areas of the city
are more suburban in nature, while others are more urban.
gulators of U

Building setbacks, heights, and design features vary according to

the type of “form district.”
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As an example, in a "traditional neighborhood" form district, a

maximum setback might be 15 feet from the property line, while in
a suburban "neighborhood"
g there mayy be no maximum setback.
 MORE REGULATORY PROCESSES

Planned
d Unit
U Development
v op
(PUD)
 PLANNED UNIT DEVELOPMENT - 1

Definition:
Urban Conttrols

A ‘Planned Unit Development’, or PUD, is both a type off building

development as well as a regulatory process.
Urban Form: Types of U

A PUD is a designed grouping of varied and compatible land uses,

such as housing, recreation, commercial centers, and industrial parks,
all within one contained development or subdivision.
subdivision

It is a means of land regulation which promotes large scale, unified

gulators of U

l d development
land d l t by
b means off mid-range,
id realistic
li ti programs to
t take
t k
care of physically-curable, social and economic deficiencies in land
and cityscapes.
y p
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PUDs may range from ‘small clusters of houses combined with open
spaces’ to ‘new
spaces new and developing towns with thousands of residents and
various land uses.’ However, all PUDs must have a size ranging from
100 acres to 2,500 acres.
 PLANNED UNIT DEVELOPMENT - 2
History
Urban Conttrols

The origins of PUDs can be traced to British movements during the 1950s when, in
order to have a sound economic base, developments in new communities determined
locations of industrial elements before construction began. On the other hand, for
example
p in America, p privatelyy controlled communities often had to attract industryy
Urban Form: Types of U

after the residential sectors had been built and occupied.

In America, the first zoning evidence of PUD was created by Prince George's County,
Maryland in 1949. It permitted the development of a large tract of land as a complete
neighborhood unit, having a range of dwelling types, the necessary local shopping
facilities and off-street parking areas, parks, playgrounds, school sites, and other
community facilities
facilities.
gulators of U

Alexandria, Virginia, in 1952, as an amendment to its city code, provided for a

“Community
Community Unit Plan”
Plan with the intent to provide for planned community facilities and
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open space development with new residential building.

y, one of the first modern uses of the actual term ‘Planned Unit Development’
Finally, p
appeared in San Francisco’s ordinance in 1962.
 PLANNED UNIT DEVELOPMENT - 3
Purpose & Benefits:
Urban Conttrols

Wh appropriate,
Where i t PUD promotes: t
-- A mixture of land uses as well as dwelling types with at least one
of the land uses being g regional
g in nature
Urban Form: Types of U

-- The clustering of residential land uses providing public and

common open space
-- Increased administrative discretion to a local professional
planning staff while setting aside present land use regulations and
rigid master plan / zoning approval processes
-- The
Th enhancement
h t off the
th bargaining
b i i process between
b t the
th
gulators of U

developer and government municipalities. This, in turn,

strengthens the local government’s site plan review and control
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over development for potentially increased profits due to land

efficiency, multiple land uses, and increased residential densities.
 PLANNED UNIT DEVELOPMENT - 4
Mixtures of Land Uses
Urban Conttrols

-- In PUDs, the zoning g of districts becomes veryy different from the standard
Euclidean type. It is much more integrated, with multiple land uses and districts
being placed on adjacent land parcels.
-- Residential properties are the most numerous & occupy the largest land areas.
Urban Form: Types of U

-- single-family residential uses are located within close proximity to two-family

units and multiple-family dwellings to form a diversified neighborhood. Schools,
churches, hospitals, recreation facilities find their way into residential districts.
-- Residential districts use se the best land in the community,
comm nit the most fa favorable
orable sites
are protected from commercial and industrial uses.
-- Land is reserved for regional, community, and local shopping clusters with some
specific restrictions (based on market experience) on what types of business are
gulators of U

intended to locate at each development.

-- Industrial standards now help to reduce the journey for employees to work.
There are environmental and performance regulations that cut down nuisance to
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areas adjacent to industrial districts.

-- With sufficient setbacks, off-street parking, and height regulations, industrial
locations adjacent to residential zones are usually looked on as an overall
community goal. PUDs do not normally have large numbers of industrial
districts, but if so, they tend to be geared more towards light industry.
 PLANNED UNIT DEVELOPMENT - 5
Design Principles - 1
Urban Conttrols

Houses and Placement of Houses:

Houses in PUDs often include access to a large shared open space surrounding
the house.
house These large protected open spaces are created by the layout of the
Urban Form: Types of U

buildings and are intended for use by all residents of the developments. Different
housing types are often mixed rather than separated as is done in conventional
development
p

Streets:
Street patterns are one of the most important elements in establishing the
gulators of U

neighborhood character. Most non-PUD development focuses on obtaining

maximum frontage for lot sizes and maximum flow of traffic on all streets.
However, in order to dispel the monotony of the typical grid plan, PUDs often
employ
l a hihierarchy
h off street
t t ttypes bbasedd on usage. Local
L l streets
t t serve only
l
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residences and have a low traffic volume, while collector streets connect local
streets to arterials, which are the major routes of travel throughout a PUD.
 PLANNED UNIT DEVELOPMENT - 6
Design Principles - 2
Urban Conttrols

Sidewalks and Pedestrian Ways:

Sidewalks and pedestrian ways of PUDs supplement and complement street
systems in establishing the character of the neighborhood
neighborhood. Sidewalks are located
Urban Form: Types of U

on at least one side of every street to enable the walkability of the developments.
Circulation systems are provided to link residential groupings, open space areas,
schools,, and local shopping
pp g areas.

Combining Design Features:

What makes PUDs unique and effective is their ability to design each of these
gulators of U

components simultaneously. Each of the elements also work together to enhance

the effect of the whole.

This a major
Thi j advantage
d t over ttraditional
diti l zoning
i practices
ti th
that,
t iin tturn, enable
bl llots
t
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to be planned in accordance with certain broad rules that, nevertheless, may allow
for some incompatibility and variation.
.
 TO CONCLUDE
garh
m: The Case of Chandig

Urban Regulatory Measures cannot be

designed or applied in a piecemeal manner

What we have to propose are

TOTAL CONCEPTS
f creating
for ti or ffor d
developing
l i communities
iti
gulators of Urban Form

It is from these concepts that

we develop the regulatory measures and vice versa

IT IS ALSO IMPORTANT TO REMEMBER THAT

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WHILE NO REGULATION CAN EVER SUBSTITUTE FOR GOOD DESIGN

GOOD DESIGN ON A CITY-WIDE SCALE IS
IMPOSSIBLE WITHOUT SOUND REGULATIONS