EVIDENCES OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY DURING ANCIENT

TIMES (3500 B.C. – A.D. 1200 IN
THE OLD WORLD)

Submitted by:
Kaycee Barruga
Erica Broncano
Christine Joy Cabarloc
Cserina Maree Capiral
Micah Mae Capurcos
Anna Rose Cebreros

Submitted to:
Prof. Rosalie Anne Mangahas

July 3, 2019
 A. SUMERIAN CIVILIZATION
The first civilization started in the Mesopotamia located between the Tigris and
Euphrates. This was the mark of the ancient civilization. The Sumerians lived on what is
known as the fertile crescent or often called the "Cradle of Civilization". Sumerian
wonderful and amazingly civilization started about 3500 B.C. and prospered until 200 B.C.
the Sumerians.
The Sumerians invented the first writing system known as the cuneiform.
Cuneiform was based on symbols and combining this symbols the Sumerians were able
to make words and names. Cuneiform means wedge shape, the symbols are made of
little wedge marks because they use a tool called stylus. The stylus serve as their pen
that is made out of a reed while the wet clay tablets are there paper during the time they
will write on wet clay tablet using the stylus and after they will let the clay tablets dry and
harden. The form mark as a huge help in their civilization because they were able to keep
records and make plans for the future plans.
Early Sumerians standardized measuring system is called sexsagisimal a 60
based system that created 60 second and 60 minute and 360° circular angle up until now
this discovery helps in the modern time.
The most great and popular of Sumerian structures are the ziggurats, huge layered
stages which bolstered sanctuaries. A few researchers have estimated that these
structures may have been the premise of the Pinnacle of Babel depicted in the Book of
Beginning. Sumerian chamber seals likewise delineate houses worked from reeds much
the same as those worked by the seminomadic Bog Bedouins (Ma'dan) of Southern Iraq
until as of late as C.E. 400. The Sumerians likewise built up the curve. With this structure,
they had the option to build up a solid sort of rooftop called a vault. They fabricated this
by building a few curves.
Sumerian sanctuaries and castles utilized further developed materials and
systems, for example, braces, breaks, half segments, and mud nails.
In terms of transportation, the Sumerians are known as the inventor of the greatest
mechanical invention of all time. Dated back in 3500 B.C., the Sumerians used the first
wheeled vehicle with the help of a donkey in order for the invention to work. The
Sumerians used wheels on axles in order to transport heavy objects from one place to
another. The Sumerians also invented the sledge and used it together with the wheels in
transporting goods. Later on, the Sumerians created the sailboat. They used the sailboat
in order to travel via water and this also helped the trading system to become wider. The
Sumerians started to exchange goods with the other ancients living along the shores of
the Persian Gulf.
The Sumerians obtained a lot of goods and resources. They have a complex but
systematized technique of farming. The Sumerians invented the seed plow and also used
the canals to help them in farming. They constructed the canals for irrigation in order for
their seeds to grow. The Sumerians were also able to produce fine clothes with the use
of wool from sheep. The Sumerians had mastered the art of bleaching, dyeing, mixing
pigments and preparing paints, cosmetics and perfumes. With these, the Sumerians were
able to meet the needs of its people and was even able to trade goods with the other
groups. They exchanged their goods for luxurious materials such as precious stones and
ivory that are obtained by the other groups.
And in terms of the Sumerians’ medicinal practices, just like any other ancient
groups, they used herbal medicines in order to cure illnesses. The Sumerian doctors put
herbs and oils on the infected areas hoping to cure it. Archeologists also believe that
Sumerian doctors used to perform trephination, to cut holes on a person’s skull to relieve
pressure on their brains, on their patients.

B. BABYLONIAN CIVILIZATION
Babylon, known to be the most splendid city of ancient world, was the capital of
the kingdom of Babylonia. It stood on the banks of the river Euphrates, in what is now
southern Iraq. It was said that the Sumerian clay tablets, artifacts, and inscriptions
strongly identified the Sumerian civilization as the origin or foundation of the ancient
Babylonian civilization.
Babylon became a major military power under Amorite king Hammurabi, who ruled
from 1792 to 1750 B.C. After Hammurabi conquered neighboring city-states, he brought
much of southern and central Mesopotamia under unified Babylonian rule, creating an
empire called Babylonia.
Hammurabi turned Babylon into a powerful and influential city. One of his greatest
accomplishments is his law code or the Code of Hammurabi. It is a collection of 282 rules,
established standards for commercial interactions and set fines and punishments to meet
the requirements of justice. Hammurabi's code was carved onto a massive, finger-shaped
black stone stele (pillar). It provides some of the earliest examples of the doctrine of “lex
talionis,” or the laws of retribution, sometimes better known as “an eye for an eye". The
Code of Hammurabi includes many harsh punishments, sometimes demanding the
removal of the guilty party’s tongue, hands, breasts, eye or ear. But the code is also one
of the earliest examples of an accused person being considered innocent until proven
guilty. But when King Hammurabi died, Babylon was destroyed by Assyria's King
Sennacherib.
The new Babylonian Empire reached it greatest magnificence when
Nebuchadnezzar II was its ruler (604-562 B.C.) who ordered the construction of the
famous "Hanging Gardens of Babylon". It is considered to be one of the Seven Wonders
of the World. It is called the Hanging Gardens because the gardens were built high above
the ground on multi-level stone terraces. The Hanging Gardens was built for the King's
Median wife Queen Amytis, because she missed the green hills and valleys of her
homeland. In addition, the gardern was also described as having been watered by an
exceptional system of irrigation and roofed with stone balconies on which were layered
various materials, such as reeds, bitumen, and lead, so that the irrigation water would not
seep through the terraces.
The Ishtar Gate was also constructed by King Nebuchadnezzar II. It was the eighth
gate of the city of Babylon and was the main entrance into the city. The Ishtar Gate was
part of Nebuchadnezzar's plan to beautify his empire's capital.
Babylonians also developed an elaborate irrigation system of canals flanked by
earthen dikes. They dug wide canals that allowed water to flow from the river out to their
farms. Then, they dug smaller irrigation ditches from the canals to their fields to water all
of their crops. They put gate on the ditches so they could control how much water will go
from the canal to the fields.
Moreover, the early development of accounting can be dated back to ancient
Mesopotamia. The people of that time relied on primitive accounting methods to record
the growth of crops and herds. It was closely related to developments in writing, counting
and money. From the Babylonians, we learned the system of book-keeping, a simple but
adequate system of double-entry accounting. In non-written form, the act of bookkeeping
dates back to the dawn of civilization when humans used tokens to track the trade of
livestock and other transactions.
The tokens – small clay pieces in a range of simple shapes – are thought to have
been used as a rudimentary bookkeeping system in prehistoric times. One theory is that
different types of tokens represented units of various commodities such as livestock and
grain. These would be exchanged and later sealed in more clay as a permanent record
of the trade – essentially, the world's first contract.
They were also adopted the Sumerian's sexagesimal system of counting, which
served as the basis of 360 degree circle and the 60-minute hour. Their measurements
made use of fractions, square, and square root. In addition, the Babylonians believed that
changes in nature and in the fortunes of people were ruled by the movements of heavenly
bodies in the sky. This led to the study of astronomy and astrology. Their models of
planetary motions and other heavenly bodies proved their ability to compute complicated
mathematical problems. Babylonian astronomers tracked the motion of planets across
the night sky using simple arithmetic and could predict the position of other celestial
bodies using advanced geometric techniques. Their detailed observation of sky enable
them to make accurate predictions of solar and lunar eclipses and other astronomical
phenomena.
Babylonians also used the sundial to measure the time during the day and water
clock during the night. The sundial depends on the rotation and movement of the sun.
As the sun moves from east to west, the shadows formed predict the time of the day. The
Babylonians used the outflow water clock. In an outflow water clock, a container is filled
with water, and the water is drained slowly and evenly out of the container. This container
has markings that are used to show the passage of time. As the water leaves the
container, an observer can see where the water is level with the lines and tell how much
time has passed.

Source: Iken Edu. (2012, December 4). The Babylonian Civilisation [Video File].
Retrieved from https://youtu.be/Mcb8JtyQDJ4

C. EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Ancient Egypt was one of the oldest and longest lasting world civilizations. It was
located along the Nile River in the northeast part of Africa and lasted for over three
thousand years. Historians generally use two ways to outline the history of Ancient Egypt:
1. Dynasties: The first is by using the different dynasties that ruled Egypt. These are the
families that had power and passed the leadership of Pharaoh down from one family
member to another. Counting the Ptolemaic Dynasty set up by the Greeks, there were
over 30 dynasties that ruled Ancient Egypt. This sounds like a lot at first, but remember
this was over the course of 3000 years.
2. Kingdoms and Periods: There are also three primary kingdoms that historians use to
define periods of Ancient Egypt. After each kingdom there is an "intermediate" period.
The three kingdoms were the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms.
Early Dynastic Period (2950 -2575 BC) - Dynasties I-III
The Ancient Egyptian civilization begins. The first Pharaoh of Egypt, Menes, united
the Upper and Lower parts of Egypt into a single civilization. He put the capitol at the
midpoint of the two lands in a city called Memphis. During this time the Egyptians
developed hieroglyphic writing which would be important for making records and running
the government.
Old Kingdom (2575-2150 BC) - Dynasties IV-VIII
The fourth dynasty begins and the Great Pyramids of Giza and the Sphinx are
built. This is often called the Age of the Pyramids. The fourth dynasty is a time of peace
and also a time when the sun god Re became prominent in the Egyptian religion. The Old
Kingdom nears its end as the 7th and 8th dynasties are weak and the government begins
to collapse. The end of the Old Kingdom is a time of poverty and famine.
Middle Kingdom (1975-1640 BC) Dynasties XI-XIV
The Pharaoh Mentuhotep II reunites the two parts of Egypt under one rule
signaling the start of the Middle Kingdom. The royal tombs are moved to the north near
the city of Memphis. The Egyptians start to use irrigation to carry water from the Nile to
their crops.
New Kingdom (1520-1075 BC) Dynasties XVIII-XX
The New Kingdom is the time of greatest prosperity for the Ancient Egyptian
civilization. During this time the Pharaohs conquer the most lands and the Egyptian
Empire reaches its peak.
1520 B.C. - Amhose I reunites the kingdom and the New Kingdom begins.
1506 B.C. - Tuthmosis I becomes Pharaoh. He is the first to be buried in the Valley of the
Kings. For the next 500 years this will be the main burial area for the royalty of Egypt.
1479 B.C. - Hatshepsut becomes Pharaoh. She is one of the most successful woman
pharaohs and rules for 22 years.
1386 B.C. - Amenhotep III becomes Pharaoh. Under his reign the Egyptian civilization
would reach its peak in prosperity, power, and art. He builds the Temple of Luxor.
352 B.C. - Akhenaten changed the Egyptian religion to worship a single god. This was a
major change of life. It only lasted for his rule, however, as his son Tutankhamun would
change the religion back to the old ways.
1279 B.C. - Rameses II becomes Pharaoh. He would rule for 67 years and build many
monuments.
Late Period (653 - 332 BC) Dynasties XXV-XXX
The late period begins as the Assyrians leave Egypt and the locals regain control
from vassals left by the Assyrians.
525 B.C. - The Persians conquer Egypt and rule for over 100 years.
332 B.C. - Alexander the Great and the Greeks conquer Egypt. He founds the great city
of Alexandria.
Ptolemaic dynasty
305 B.C. - Ptolemy I becomes Pharaoh and the Ptolemic period begins. Alexandria
becomes the new capital.
30 B.C. - The last Pharaoh, Cleopatra VII, dies.
Geography
Upper and Lower Egypt
The Nile River flows north through Egypt and into the Mediterranean Sea. Ancient
Egypt was divided into two regions, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. This looks a bit
confusing on a map because Upper Egypt is to the south and Lower Egypt is to the north.
This is because the names come from the flow of the Nile River.
Fertile Land
 The most important thing the Nile provided to the Ancient Egyptians was fertile
land. Most of Egypt is desert, but along the Nile River the soil is rich and good for growing
crops. The three most important crops were wheat, flax, and papyrus.
Wheat - Wheat was the main staple food of the Egyptians. They used it to make bread.
They also sold a lot of their wheat throughout the Middle East helping the Egyptians to
become rich.
Flax - Flax was used to make linen cloth for clothing. This was the main type of cloth used
by the Egyptians.
Papyrus - Papyrus was a plant that grew along the shores of the Nile. The Ancient
Egyptians found many uses for this plant including paper, baskets, rope, and sandals.
Building Material
The Nile River also provided a lot of building materials for the Ancient Egyptians.
They used the mud from the riverbanks to make sundried bricks. These bricks were used
in building homes, walls, and other buildings. The Egyptians also quarried limestone and
sandstone from the hills along the side of the Nile.
Seasons of the Nile
The Egyptians even built their calendar around the Nile River. They divided their
calendar up into three seasons. Akhet, or inundation, was considered the first season and
was the time of the flooding of the Nile. The other two seasons were Peret, the growing
season, and Shemu, the harvest season.
• The Ancient Egyptians called the rich black soil from the floods the "Gift of the Nile".
• The Egyptians measured the height of the annual flood using a Nilometer. This helped
them to determine how good the crops would be that year.
Valley of the Kings
How Many Tombs are in the Valley of the Kings?
There are over 60 tombs in the Valley of the Kings. They vary from small tombs
that are little more than a large hole in the ground to very large tombs with over 100
underground chambers. Unfortunately, most of the tombs were looted thousands of years
ago and the treasure was stolen or removed by thieves.
Pyramids
Why did they build the pyramids?
The pyramids were built as burial places and monuments to the Pharaohs. As part
of their religion, the Egyptians believed that the Pharaoh needed certain things to succeed
in the afterlife. Deep inside the pyramid the Pharaoh would be buried with all sorts of
items and treasure that he may need to survive in the afterlife.
How big were the pyramids?
There are around 138 Egyptian pyramids. Some of them are huge. The largest is
the Pyramid of Khufu, also called the Great Pyramid of Giza. When it was first built it was
over 480 feet tall! It was the tallest man-made structure for over 3800 years and is one of
the Seven Wonders of the World. It's estimated that this pyramid was made from 2.3
million blocks of rock weighing 5.9 million tons.
How did they build them?
How the pyramids were built has been a mystery that archeologists have been
trying to solve for many years. It is believed that thousands of slaves were used to cut up
the large blocks and then slowly move them up the pyramid on ramps. The pyramid would
get slowly built, one block at a time. Scientists estimate it took at least 20,000 workers
over 23 years to build the Great Pyramid of Giza. Because it took so long to build them,
Pharaohs generally started the construction of their pyramids as soon as they became
ruler.
What's inside the pyramids?
Deep inside the pyramids lays the Pharaoh's burial chamber which would be filled
with treasure and items for the Pharaoh to use in the afterlife. The walls were often
covered with carvings and paintings. Near the Pharaoh's chamber would be other rooms
where family members and servants were buried. There were often small rooms that
acted as temples and larger rooms for storage. Narrow passageways led to outside.
The Great Sphinx of Giza
The most famous Sphinx is the Great Sphinx of Giza. It is one of the largest and
oldest statues in the world. Archeologists believe that it was carved around 2500 BC and
that the head is meant to be the likeness of the Pharaoh Khafra. The Great Sphinx faces
the sunrise and guards the pyramid tombs of Giza.
Food and Jobs
Ancient Egypt was a complex society needing people doing many different tasks
and jobs. Some of the jobs they had included:
• Farmers - most of the people were farmers. They grew barley to make bear, wheat for
bread, vegetables such as onions and cucumbers, and flax to make into linen. They grew
their crops near the banks of the Nile River where the rich black soil was good for crops.
• Craftspeople - There were a wide variety of craftsmen jobs. They included carpenters,
weavers, jewelers, leather workers, and potters. How skilled a craftsman was would
determine his success.
• Soldiers - Becoming a soldier was an opportunity for a person to rise in society. Most of
the soldiers were footmen. There was a well defined hierarchy in the Egyptian army. In
peacetime, soldiers would help with government projects such as moving stone for a
pyramid or digging a canal.
• Scribes - Scribes were important people in Ancient Egypt as they were the only people
who knew how to read and write. Scribes came from wealthy families and took years of
training to learn the complex Egyptian hieroglyphics.
• Priests and Priestesses - Priests and Priestesses were responsible for the temples and
held religious ceremonies.
What did they eat?
The main staple of the commoner was bread. They also had fruits, vegetables,
lamb, and goats for food. They had clay ovens to cook in and usually used dishes made
of clay. The main drink was beer made from barley.
Egyptian Mummies
The afterlife was an important part of Ancient Egyptian culture. One of the ways
they prepared for the afterlife was to try and preserve the body as long as possible. They
did this through a process called embalming. These embalmed bodies are called
mummies.
How did they embalm the mummies?
The Egyptians went through an elaborate process to preserve the body and keep
it from decaying. It's a little gross, so we won't go into too much of the gory details. The
main thing they did was try to get all the water and moisture out of the body. It's water
that causes much of the decay.
There are still mummies of some of the ancient Pharaohs around. Both
Tutankhamun and Rameses the Great were preserved and can be seen at museums.
• Over the past few thousands of years, many of the Egyptian mummies have been
destroyed in interesting ways. Some were burned for fuel, some were ground into powder
to make magical potions, and some were destroyed by treasure hunters.
• The heart was left in the body because it was considered to be the center of intelligence.
The brain was thrown away because it was thought to be useless.
• Sometimes the mummy's mouth would be opened to symbolize breathing in the afterlife.
It is probably this custom that led to the superstition that mummies come back to life.
• Mummies are studied by scientists without unwrapping them by using CAT scan and X-
Ray machines.
Book of the Dead
What is the Book of the Dead?
 The Book of the Dead is a series of written spells that the Ancient Egyptians
believed helped them in the afterlife. It isn't one giant book, but is more of a bunch of
individual chapters.
Where were the spells written?
The spells from the Book of the Dead were written on papyrus sheets or on the
walls of the tomb. Scribes used hieroglyphics to write down the spells. They also
illustrated the stories of the Book of Dead with colorful pictures.
Why did the Egyptians want this in their tomb?
Preparing for the afterlife was a big part of the Egyptian religion. They spent a lot
of time and money on preparing their tombs and making sure they would have all the stuff
they needed in the afterlife. They felt that the spells contained in the Book of the Dead
would help protect them from demons, give them strength to travel in the underworld, and
even win them a place in heaven.
WOMENS ROLES
In general, men and women had different roles in the society of Ancient Egypt.
However, unlike in many ancient civilizations, women were considered men's equals
under the law. Just like men, women could run businesses, borrow money, and own
property.
Education
Because women did not become scribes or work in the government, they did not
learn how to read or write. They were taught homemaking skills and how to manage a
household by their mother.
Marriage
Girls in Ancient Egypt got married very young. Usually around the age of twelve or
thirteen. The Egyptians did not have big marriage ceremonies and most marriages were
arranged by the two families.
Typical Roles
Women typically worked around the home. They prepared food, cooked meals,
cleaned the house, made clothing, and took care of the children. Poor women would help
their husbands work the fields. Wealthier women would manage the servants or perhaps
run a business of their own.
Preparing Food
Preparing food for the family was a full time job for most peasant women. They
would tend the garden, ground grain into flour, knead flour into dough, and cook bread.
Wealthy Women
 Wealthy women would have had servants to do most of the housework and
cooking. They would spend their time managing the servants and planning large
banquets. Sometimes wealthy or high-ranking women became priestesses working in a
temple for one of the Egyptian goddesses.
Priestesses and Goddesses
Only women from important and high-ranking families would have been allowed to
become priestesses. Working in a temple was considered an honor. There were many
powerful women goddesses in the Egyptian religion including Isis (the mother goddess),
Hathor (goddess of love and motherhood), and Nut (goddess of the sky).
Hieroglyphics
The Ancient Egyptians used picture words to write called hieroglyphics. It is a very
old form of writing that they starting using as early as 3000 B.C. Hieroglyphics was a very
complicated way of writing involving 1000s of symbols. Some of the symbols represented
sounds, like our letters, and other's represented entire words.
Inventions and Technology
The Ancient Egyptians were one of the first civilizations to form in the ancient world.
Their inventions and technology had an impact on many civilizations to come. Their
technology included the ability to build large construction projects such as pyramids and
palaces, simple machines such as ramps and levers, and a complex system of
government and religion.
Writing
One of the most important inventions of the Ancient Egyptians was writing. They
wrote in hieroglyphics. You can learn more about hieroglyphics here. Writing allowed the
Egyptians to keep accurate records and maintain control of their large empire.
Papyrus Sheets
The Egyptians learned how to make durable sheets of parchment from the papyrus
plant. It was used for important documents and religious texts. The Egyptians kept the
process to make the sheets a secret so they could sell the parchment to other civilizations
such as Ancient Greece.
Medicine
The Ancient Egyptians had a wide variety of medicines and cures. Some of their
medicines were quite strange. For example, they used honey and human brains to cure
eye infections. They also used a whole cooked mouse to help cure coughs. Many of their
medicines were accompanied by spells to ward off the evil spirits making the person sick.
Shipbuilding
 With the Nile River playing a major role in the lives of the Egyptians, building ships
was a big part of their technology. They originally built small boats from papyrus reeds,
but later began to build large ships from cedar wood imported from Lebanon.
Mathematics
The Egyptians needed a good understanding of mathematics and geometry to
build the pyramids and other large buildings. They also used math and numbers to keep
track of business transactions. For numbers they used a decimal system. They didn't
have numerals for 2 - 9 or zero. They just had numbers for factors of 10 such as 1, 10,
100, etc. In order to write the number 3 they would write down three number 1s. To write
the number 40, they would write down four number 10s.
Makeup
All Egyptians wore makeup, even the men. They made a dark eye makeup called
kohl from soot and other minerals. The makeup was a fashion statement, but it also had
the side effect of protecting their skin from the hot desert sun.
Toothpaste
Because their bread had so much grit and sand in it, the Egyptians had a lot of
problems with their teeth. They invented the toothbrush and toothpaste in an effort to take
care of their teeth. They used a wide variety of ingredients to make their toothpaste
including ashes, eggshells, and even ground up ox hooves.
The Egyptians didn't build roads to travel around their empire. They didn't need to.
Nature had already built them a superhighway right through the middle of their empire
called the Nile River.
Boats and Transportation
Most of the major cities in Ancient Egypt were located along the banks of the Nile
River. As a result, the Egyptians used the Nile for transportation and shipping from very
early on. They became experts at building boats and navigating the river.
Early Boats
Early Egyptians learned to make small boats out of the papyrus plant. They were
easy to construct and worked well for fishing and short trips. Most of the papyrus boats
were small and were steered with oars and poles. The typical boat was long and thin and
the ends came to a point that stuck out of the water.
Wooden Boats
Eventually the Egyptians began to make boats from wood. They used acacia wood
from Egypt and imported cedar wood from Lebanon. They also began to use a giant sail
in the middle of the boat so they could catch the wind when heading upstream. The
Egyptians built their wooden boats without nails. Boats were often made from a number
of short planks that were hooked together and tied tight with ropes. Steering was
accomplished by using a large rudder oar at the back of the ships.
Cargo Ships
The Egyptians learned how to build large and sturdy cargo ships. They sailed these
up and down the Nile and into the Mediterranean Sea to trade with other countries. These
ships could hold lots of cargo. Some ships were used to carry huge stones weighing as
much as 500 tons from the rock quarry to where the pyramids were being constructed.
Funeral Boats
The Egyptians believed that a boat was needed in the afterlife in order to journey
to the heavens. Sometimes a small model of a boat was buried with a person. Often times
a full size boat was included in the tombs of Pharaohs and other wealthy Egyptians. There
were 35 boats of some type in the pharaoh Tutankhamun's tomb.
Rowing or Sailing
It turns out that the Nile had another great advantage for boating. When boats were
traveling north, they would be going with the current. When the ships were traveling south,
they generally had the wind blowing in their direction and would use a sail. The ships
often had oars to gain even more speed when traveling in either direction.

D. CRETAN (MINOAN) CIVILIZATION

The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age Aegean civilization on the island of Crete
and other Aegean Islands, flourishing from c. 2700 to c. 1450 BC until a late period of
decline, finally ending around 1100 BC.
Dates: c. 2700 – c. 1100 BC
Period: Aegean Bronze Age
Major sites: Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, Zakros
Followed by: Mycenaean Greece
Geographical range: Aegean Sea, especially Crete
Preceded by: Cycladic culture
The Minoan civilization flourished in the Middle Bronze Age on the island of Crete
located in the eastern Mediterranean from c. 2000 BCE until c. 1500 BCE. With their
unique art and architecture, and the spread of their ideas through contact with other
cultures across the Aegean, the Minoans made a significant contribution to the
development of Western European civilization as it is known today. Labyrinth-like palace
complexes, vivid frescoes depicting scenes such as bull-leaping and processions, fine
gold jewellery, elegant stone vases, and pottery with vibrant decorations of marine life are
all particular features of Minoan Crete.
Arthur Evans & Discovery
The archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans was first alerted to the possible presence of an
ancient civilization on Crete by surviving carved seal stones worn as charms by native
Cretans in the early 20th century CE. Excavating at Knossos from 1900 to 1905 CE,
Evans discovered extensive ruins which confirmed the ancient accounts, both literary and
mythological, of a sophisticated Cretan culture and possible site of the legendary labyrinth
and palace of King Minos. It was Evans who coined the term Minoan in reference to this
legendary Bronze Age king. Evans, seeing what he believed to be the growth and decline
of a unified culture on Crete, divided the island’s Bronze Age into three distinct phases
largely based on different pottery styles:
Early Bronze Age or Early Minoan (EM): 3000-2100 BCE
Middle Bronze Age or Middle Minoan (MM): 2100-1600 BCE
Late Bronze Age or Late Minoan (LM): 1600-1100 BCE
The above divisions were subsequently refined by adding numbered subphases
to each group (e.g. MM II). Radio-carbon dating and tree-ring calibration techniques have
helped to further refine the dates so that the Early Bronze Age now begins c. 3500 BCE
and the Late Bronze Age c. 1700 BCE. An alternative to this series of divisions, created
by Platon, instead focuses on the events occurring in and around the major Minoan
“palaces”. This scheme has four periods:
Prepalatial: 3000 - 2000/1900 BCE
Protopalatial: 2000/1900 - 1700 BCE
Neopalatial: 1700 - 1470/1450 BCE
Postpalatial: 1470/1450 - 1100 BCE
Both of these schemes have since been challenged by more modern archaeology
and approaches to history and anthropology in general which prefer a more multilinear
development of culture on Crete with a more complex scenario involving conflicts and
inequalities between settlements and which also considers their cultural differences as
well as their obvious similarities.
Minoan Palace Settlements
Minoan settlements, tombs, and cemeteries have been found all over Crete but
the four principal palace sites (in order of size) were:
Knossos
Phaistos
 Malia
Zakros
MINOAN PALACES EXERTED SOME KIND OF LOCALISED CONTROL, IN
PARTICULAR, IN THE GATHERING & STORAGE OF SURPLUS MATERIALS.
At each of these sites, large, complex palace structures seem to have acted as
local administrative, trade, religious, and possibly political centres. The relationship
between the palaces and the power structure within them or over the island as a whole is
not clear due to a lack of archaeological and literary evidence. It is clear, however, that
the palaces exerted some kind of localised control, in particular, in the gathering and
storage of surplus materials - wine, oil, grain, precious metals and ceramics. Small towns,
villages, and farms were spread around the territory seemingly controlled by a single
palace. Roads connected these isolated settlements to each other and the main centre.
There is a general agreement among historians that the palaces were independent from
each other up to 1700 BCE, and thereafter they came under the sway of Knossos, as
evidenced by a greater uniformity in architecture and the use of Linear A writing across
various palace sites.
The absence of fortifications in the settlements suggests a relatively peaceful co-
existence between the different communities. However, the presence of weapons such
as swords, daggers, and arrowheads, and defensive equipment such as armour and
helmets would also suggest that peace may not always have been enjoyed. Minoan
roads, too, have evidence of regular guardhouses and watchtowers suggesting that
banditry, at least, troubled the unprotected traveller.
The palaces themselves covered two periods. The first palaces were constructed
around 2000 BCE and, following destructive earthquakes and fires, rebuilt again c. 1700
BCE. These second palaces survived until their final destruction between 1500 BCE and
1450 BCE, once again by either earthquake, fire, or possibly invasion (or a combination
of all three). The palaces were well-appointed, monumental structures with large courts,
colonnades, ceilings supported by tapered wooden columns, staircases, religious crypts,
light-wells, extensive drainage systems, large storage magazines and even ‘theatre’
areas for public spectacles or religious processions.
DEPICTIONS OF DOUBLE AXES (OR LABRYS) & THE COMPLEX PALACES MAY
HAVE COMBINED TO GIVE BIRTH TO THE LEGEND OF THESEUS & THE
LABYRINTH-DWELLING MINOTAUR.
Reaching up to four stories high and spreading over several thousand square
metres, the complexity of these palaces, the sport of bull-leaping, the worship of bulls as
indicated by the presence throughout of sacred bulls’ horns and depictions of double axes
(or labrys) in stone and fresco may all have combined to give birth to the legend of
Theseus and the labyrinth-dwelling Minotaur so popular in later classical Greek
mythology.
Religion
The religion of the Minoans remains sketchy, but details are revealed through art,
architecture, and artefacts. These include depictions of religious ceremonies and rituals
such as the pouring of libations, making food offerings, processions, feasts, and sporting
events like bull-leaping. Natural forces and nature in general, manifested in such artworks
as a voluptuous female mother-earth goddess figure and male figure holding several
animals, seem to have been revered. Palaces contain open courtyards for mass
gatherings and rooms often have wells and channels for the pouring of libations, as
previously noted. As already mentioned, too, bulls are prominent in Minoan art, and their
horns are an architectural feature of palace walls and a general decorative element in
jewellery, frescoes, and pottery decoration. Dramatic rural sites such as hilltops and
caves often show evidence of cult rituals being performed there.
Material Culture
The sophistication of the Minoan culture and its trading capacity is evidenced by
the presence of writing, firstly Cretan Hieroglyphic (c. 2000-1700 BCE) and then Linear A
scripts (both, as yet, undeciphered), predominantly found on various types of
administrative clay tablets. Seal impressions on clay were another important form of
record keeping.
A further example of the culture’s high degree of development is the variety and
quality of the art forms practised by the Minoans. Pottery finds reveal a wide range of
vessels from wafer-thin cups to large storage jars (pithoi). Ceramics were initially hand-
turned but then increasingly made on the potter’s wheel. In decoration, there was a
progression from flowing geometric designs in Kamares ware to vibrant naturalistic
depictions of flowers, plants, and sea life in the later Floral and Marine styles. Common
pottery shapes include three-handled amphorae, tall beaked-jugs, squat round vessels
with a false spout, beakers, small lidded boxes, and ritual vessels with figure-of-eight-
shaped handles. Stone was also used to produce similar vessel types and rhyta (ritual
vessels for pouring libations, often in the shape of animal heads).
Large-scale figure sculpture has not survived but there are many figurines in
bronze and other materials. Early types in clay show the dress of the time with men
(coloured red) wearing belted loincloths and women (coloured white) in long flowing
dresses and open-fronted jackets. A leaping acrobat in ivory and the faience snake
goddess already mentioned are notable works which reveal the Minoan love of capturing
figures in active striking poses.
Decline
The reasons for the demise of the Minoan civilization continue to be debated.
Palaces and settlements show evidence of fire and destruction c. 1450 BCE, but not at
Knossos (which was destroyed perhaps a century later). The rise of the Mycenaean
civilization in the mid-2nd millennium BCE on the Greek mainland and the evidence of
their cultural influence on later Minoan art and trade make them the most likely cause.
However, other suggestions include earthquakes and volcanic activity with a consequent
tsunami. The eruption of Thera (the present-day island of Santorini) may have been
particularly significant, although, the exact date of this cataclysmic eruption is disputed
and therefore its connection with the end of the Minoan period remains unclear. The most
likely scenario was probably a fatal mix of natural environmental damage and competition
for wealth weakening the structure of society, which was then exploited by invading
Mycenaeans. Whatever the cause, most of the Minoan sites were abandoned by 1200
BCE and Crete would not return to the Mediterranean stage of history until the 8th century
BCE when it was colonised by Archaic Greeks.
Magnificent frescoes from the walls, ceilings, and floors of the palaces also reveal
the Minoans’ love of the sea and nature and give insights into religious, communal, and
funeral practices. Subjects range in scale from miniature to larger-than-life size. The
Minoans were one of the earliest cultures to paint natural landscapes without any humans
present in the scene; such was their admiration of nature. Animals, too, were often
depicted in their natural habitat, for example, monkeys, birds, dolphins, and fish. Although
Minoan frescoes were often framed with decorative borders of geometric designs, the
principal fresco itself, on occasion, went beyond conventional boundaries such as corners
and covered several walls of a single room, surrounding the viewer.
MINOAN ARTISTS, ESPECIALLY FRESCO PAINTERS, TOOK THEIR SKILLS TO
THE ROYAL PALACES OF EGYPT & THE LEVANT.
Aegean Contacts
The Minoans, as a seafaring culture, were also in contact with foreign peoples
throughout the Aegean, as evidenced by the Near Eastern and Egyptian influences in
their early art but also in the later export trade, notably the exchange of pottery and
foodstuffs such as oil and wine in return for precious objects and materials such as copper
from Cyprus and Attica and ivory from Egypt. Several Aegean islands, especially in the
Cyclades, display the characteristics of a palace-centred economy and political structure
as seen on Crete while Minoan artists, especially fresco painters, took their skills to the
royal palaces of Egypt and the Levant.

Source: Retrieved from: https://www.ancient.eu/Minoan_Civilization/