ESSENTIALS OF MINERAL EXPLORATION AND EVALUATION

1. Metals and 1.1 General

Minerals: Global 1.2 Emerging Economies of the New World
Trends, Outlook, 1.3 Program for Progress
and Mineral 1.4 Recycling and Conservation
Exploration 1.5 Some Environmental Benefits of Metals Recycling
1.6 Substitution
1.7 Global Flow of Metals and Minerals
1.7.1 Metal Prices in Nominal Terms
1.7.2 Chinese Demand Growth 10
1.7.3 Higher Prices Bring Benefits to Producer Countries and
Investors
1.7.4 Market-Driven Industry Gives Grounds for Optimism
1.7.5 Long-Term Price Trends
1.7.6 Policy Implications
1.8 Global Demand of Mineral Resources up to 2050
1.9 Shifting Markets Create New Opportunities
1.10 The Great Fall of China and Global Volatility
1.11 Challenges of Developing Adequate Supply of Minerals
1.12 The Need for Intense Mineral Exploration
2. Mineral Deposits: 2.1 Introduction
Types and 2.2 Definitions
Associations 2.3 The Rock Cycle
2.4 Rock-Forming Minerals
2.5 Ore Body
2.6 Formation of Mineral Deposit
2.7 Chemical and Physical Controls of Ore Deposition
2.8 Ore Deposit Types
2.9 Composition of the Deposit
2.9.1 Metallic Deposits
2.9.2 Nonmetallic Resources
1.9.3 Energy Resources
2.10 Classification Based on Form
2.11 Classification Based on the Theory of Origin
2.11.1 Magmatic
2.11.2 Hydrothermal
2.11.3 Syngenetic
2.11.4 Epigenetic
2.11.5 Sedimentary Deposits Secondary Deposits
2.12 Classification Based on Ore Formation Processes and Element
Associations lacers
2.14 Metallogenic Provinces and Epochs
2.12 2.14.1 Metallogenic Provinces
2.13 2.14.2 Metallogenic Epochs
2.14 2.15 Metallogenic Provinces in Relation to Plate Tectonic Setting
3. Reconnaissance 3.1 Reconnaissance
and Prospecting 3.2 Reconnaissance Map
3.3 Reconnaissance Survey
3.4 Geological Survey
3.4.1 Equipments Used in Geological Field Mapping
3.5 Geological Mapping
3.5.1 Digital Mapping
3.5.2 Structural Mapping
3.6 Digital Elevation Models
 3.7 Prospecting
3.7.1 Float Sample Tracing
3.7.2 Panning
3.7.3 Pitting and Trenching
3.8 Prospecting Types
3.9 Preliminary Field Trip
3.10 Prospecting Methods
3.10.1 Preliminary Proving
3.10.2 Detailed Proving
3.11 Guides for Prospecting
3.11.1 Evidence from Outlying Areas
3.12 Classification of Guides
3.12.2 Physiographic Guides
3.12.2 Physiography, in relation to Oxidation and Enrichment:
Residual Ores
3.13 Mineralogical Guides
3.13.1 Target Rings of Alteration
3.13.2 Hypogene Zoning as a Guide
3.13.3 Oxidation Products
3.13.4 Leached Outcrops
3.14.5 Metals in the Oxidized Zones
3.14 Stratigraphic and Lithologic Guides
3.15 Structural Guides
3.15.1 Fracture Patterns as Guides
3.15.2 Contacts as Guides
3.15.3 Folds
3.16 Geochemical Guides
3.16.1 Biogeochemical and Geobotanical Guides
3.17 Animal Activity
4. Remote Sensing 4.1 Introduction
Techniques 4.2 Remote Sensing
4.4 Why Remote Sensing
4.4 Major Remote Sensing Satellite Systems
4.4.1 High-Resolution Satellites
4.5 Radar and Thermal Infrared Sensors
4.6 Digital Image Processing
4.7 Application of Remote Sensing 89
4.7.1 Mapping of Geology and Fracture Patterns at Regional and
Local Scales
4.7.2 Hydrothermally Altered Rocks and Associated Mineral
Deposits
4.8 Advantages of Satellite Imageries
4.9 Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System
4.11 Remote Sensing Versus Aerial Photography/Photogrammetry
4.11 Remote Sensing and Multispectral Imaging
4.12 Remote Sensing Versus SONAR
4.13 Remote Sensing Industry—Present Trends and Outlook
5. Geophysical 5.1 Introduction
Exploration 5.2 Geophysical Methods and Targets
5.3 Choice of a Technique
5.4 Gravity Techniques—Gravity Gradiometry, Geodesy, Microgravity
Surveys
5.5 Magnetic Techniques
5.6 Electromagnetic Methods
5.6.1 Limitations
 5.7 Radiometric (Gamma Ray) Method—Aeroradiometric Surveys
5.8 Seismic Methods
5.9 Electrical Techniques
5.9.1 Direct Current Resistivity Method
5.9.2 Electromagnetic Method
5.9.3 Mise-a-la-Masse Method
5.9.4 Self-Potential Method
5.9.5 Induced Polarization Method
5.10 Thermal Methods
5.11 Remote Sensing Methods
5.12 Borehole Geophysics (Geophysical Logging)
5.13 Lithology Logs
5.14 Ground Penetrating Radar Surveys
5.15 Very Low Frequency Surveys
5.16 Other Methods
5.17 Geophysical Inversion Technique
5.18 Emerging Geophysical Technique
5.18.1 Magnetotelluric Technique
5.19 Airborne Geophysical Survey
5.19.1 Advantages
5.20 High-Definition Airborne Gravity Gradiometry
5.21 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
5.22 Future Trends
5.23 Marine Geophysical Exploration Survey
5.23.1 Exploration for New Resources
5.24 Satellite Geophysics
6. Geochemical 6.1 Introduction
Exploration 6.2 The Geochemical Cycle
6.3 General Principles
6.3.1 Physical Dispersion
6.3.2 Chemical Dispersion
6.3.3 Primary and Secondary Environments
6.3.4 Geochemical Mobility
6.3.5 Pathfinders
6.4 Geochemical Exploration Surveys
6.4.1 Types of Geochemical Surveys
6.5 Various Geochemical Exploration Surveys
6.5.1 Pedogeochemical Survey
6.5.2 Stream Sediment Survey
6.5.3 Lake Sediments
6.5.4 Glacial Drift
6.5.5 Heavy Minerals
6.5.6 Lithogeochemical Survey
6.5.7 Hydrogeochemical Survey
6.5.8 Atmogeochemical Surveys
6.5.9 Vegetation
6.5.10 Electrogeochemical Specific Ion Surveys
6.5.11 Electrogeochemical Survey
6.6 Other Advanced Techniques
6.7 Design of Geochemical Survey
6.8 Sampling for Geochemical Surveys
6.9 Geochemical Maps
6.10 Interpretation of Data
6.10.1 Estimation of Background and Threshold
 6.10.2 Distinguishing Between Significant and Nonsignificant
Anomalies
6.10.3 Distinction Between Superjacent and Lateral Anomalies
6.10.4 Appraisal of Anomalies
6.11 Geochemical Data Processing
6.12 Analysis of Exploration Data and Identifying Geochemical
Anomalies
6.13 Geochemical Survey Interpretation
6.14 Typical Geochemical Exploration Program
7. Geological 7.1 Introduction
Exploration 7.2 Minerals Activity Project
7.3 Mineral Exploration
7.4 Evolution of Exploration Technology
7.5 Development of Exploration Technology
7.6 Challenges for Mineral Exploration
7.7 Designing an Exploration Approach
7.8 The Exploration Cycle
7.8.1 Reconnaissance and Preliminary Exploration: Geological
Concept Formation 167
7.8.2 Advanced Exploration
(Detailed Target Evaluation) 168
7.8.3 Feasibility Stage 169
7.8.4 Deposit Development 169
7.9 Environmental Impacts of Mineral
Exploration and Development 170
7.10 Mine Closure Plan 171
7.11 Greenfields Versus Brownfields
Exploration 171
7.12 Resourcing the Future 172
7.13 Project Funding 172
7.13.1 Exploration Funding
by Junior Exploration
Companies 173
7.14 Ingredients of a Successful
Exploration Campaign 174
7.14.1 Selection of Right Geological
Terrain 174
7.15 Mineral Exploration and
Development—Geographic
Location 176
7.16 Expected Revenues, Costs, and
Risks 177
7.17 Exploration Expenditure 179
7.17.1 Sources of Exploration
Financing 179
7.17.2 Optimum Level of Exploration
Expenditure 180
7.17.3 New Technology Adoption 181
7.18 Discovery Depends Upon Various
Factors 183
7.19 Mineral Exploration Under Deep
Cover 189
7.20 Interpretation and 3D Modeling 191
8. Drilling 8.1 Introduction
 8.2 Categories of Drilling Rig
8.3 Drilling Methods
8.3.1 Diamond Core Drilling
8.3.2 Air-Rotary Drilling
8.3.3 Mud Rotary Drilling
8.3.4 Auger Drilling
8.3.5 Percussion Rotary Air-Blast
8.3.6 Air-Core Drilling
8.3.7 Dry Drilling
8.3.8 Rotasonic (Sonic) Drilling
8.3.9 All Hydraulic Drills
8.4 Selection of Drill
8.5 Selection of Drilling Fluid
8.6 Selection of Pump
8.7 Exploration Drilling Methods
8.7.1 Diamond Core Drilling
8.7.2 RC Drilling
8.7.3 Wire-Line Core Drilling
8.8 The Coiled Tubing Drill Rig
8.9 Samples From Drilling
8.9.1 Core
8.9.2 Dry Drill Cuttings
8.9.3 Wet Drill Cuttings
8.10 Core Recovery
8.11 Core Storage
8.12 Core Splitting
8.13 Core Logging
8.14 High-Tech Core Scanning and
Interpretation
8.15 Deductions From Drill Core Samples
8.15.1 Grade
8.15.2 Stratigraphic Thickness (Width)
8.15.3 Structure
8.16 Portable XRF Analyzer
8.17 Deviation of Drill Holes
8.18 Directional Core Drilling
8.18 Directional Core Drilling
9. Sampling and 9.1 Introduction
Analysis 9.2 Sampling
9.3 Geological Sampling Methods
9.3.1 Talus Debris (Float) Sampling
9.3.2 Trench and Pit Sampling
9.3.3 Chip Sampling
9.3.4 Grab Sampling
9.3.5 Channel Sampling
9.3.6 Placer Sampling
 9.3.7 Drill Sampling: Core/Cuttings/Sludge
9.3.8 Bulk Sampling
9.3.9 Dump Sampling
9.3.10 Car Sampling
9.4 Criteria for the Selection of a Sampling
Procedure
9.5 Collection of Samples
9.6 Errors in Sampling
9.7 Preparation of Samples
9.7.1 Drying
9.7.2 Comminution
9.7.3 Splitting
9.8 Screening and Particle Size Distribution
9.9 Sample Preparation Methods for Analysis
9.9.1 Wet Method
9.9.2 Dry Method
9.10 Analysis of Geochemical Samples
9.10.1 Precision and Accuracy
9.11 High-Quality Analyses for Exploration
9.12 Sources of Error
Appendix: Gy’s Sampling Reduction
Formula
References
10. Geographic 10.1 Geographic Information System
Information 10.1.1 Introduction
System and
Common Earth 10.1.2 Types of GIS
Model 10.1.3 GIS and Data Integration
10.1.4 GIS and Remote Sensing
10.1.5 GIS and GPS
10.1.6 GIS for MineralExploration
10.1.7 Mineral Potentiality Mapping
10.1.8 Sources of Error in GIS
10.1.9 3D GIS Technology
10.1.10 Recent Trends and Future
Directions
10.2 Common Earth Model
10.3 3D & 4D GIS Geomodeling
10.4 Common Earth Model at
Exploration Stages
References
11. Conventional and 11.1 Introduction
Statistical 11.2 Conventional Resource/Reserve Estimation
Resource/Reserve
Estimation 11.2.1 Polygonal Method
11.2.2 Triangular Method
11.2.3 Cross-Sectional Method
11.2.4 RSG Method
11.2.5 Contour Method
 11.2.6 LVS Method
11.3 Drawbacks of Conventional Resource/Reserve Estimation
11.4 Statistical Resource/Reserve Estimation
11.4.1 Statistics and Probability
11.4.2 Probability Distribution
11.4.3 Frequency Distribution
11.5 Characterization of a Distribution
11.5.1 Parameters of Central Tendency
11.5.2 Parameters of Dispersion
11.5.3 Parameter of Symmetry
11.5.4 Parameter of Peakedness
11.6 Probability Models
11.6.1 The Normal Distribution Theory
11.6.2 The Lognormal Distribution Theory
11.7 Graphical Estimation of Logarithmic Mean and Logarithmic
Variance
11.8 Numerical Estimation of Logarithmic Mean and Logarithmic
Variance
11.9 Estimation of Average of a Mineral Deposit
11.10 Estimation of Central 90% Confidence Limits of Mean of a
Lognormal Population
11.11 Number of Samples
11.12 Demerits of Statistical Resource/
Reserve Estimation
Reserve Estimation
References
12. Geostatistical 12.1 Background
Resource/Reserve 12.2 Geostatistics
Estimation
12.3 Random Function
12.4 Regionalized Variable
12.5 Why Geostatistics
12.6 Semivariogram Function
12.7 Mathematical Models of Semivariogram
12.7.1 The Spherical Model
12.7.2 The Linear Model
12.7.3 The de Wijsian Model
12.7.4 The ahλ Model
12.7.5 The Exponential Model
12.7.6 The Gaussian Model
12.7.7 The Parabolic Model
12.7.8 The Hole-Effect Model
12.7.9 The Pure Random Model
12.8 Kriging: Concepts and Applications
12.8.1 Practice of Kriging
12.9 Integrated Geostatistical Modeling Process
12.9.1 Geology and Geostatistics
12.9.2 Exploration Database
 12.9.3 Integrated Geostatistical Modeling
12.10 Mineral Inventory
12.11 GradeTonnage Relations
12.12 A Step-by-Step Summary for an Integrated Geostatistical
Study
12.13 Geostatistics in Mineral industry
12.14 Limitations of Use of Geostatistics
13. Mineral 13.1 Introduction
Resources 13.2 History of the Development of Reporting Standards
Classification
13.3. Exploration Results
13.4 Competent Person and Responsibility
13.5 Mineral Resource Classification
13.5.1 Mineral Resources
13.5.2 Mineral Reserves/Ore Reserves
13.6 The JORC Code
13.7 Reporting Terminology
13.8 Codification of UNFC System
13.9 The Russian Federation Classification System
13.10 The Chinese Reserve and Resource Reporting System
14. Valuation of 14.1 Introduction
Mineral Properties 14.2 Periodic Change in Mineral Property Values
14.3 Exploration Assets and the Exploration Procedure
14.4 Valuation Techniques, Approaches, and Methodology
14.4.1 Cost Approach: AVM
14.4.2 Market Approach
14.4.3 The Income Approach
14.4.4 DCF Method
14.5 Mineral Valuation Codes
14.6 Concluding Remarks
Appendix:
Case Study of
Rampura-Agucha
Zinc-Lead
Deposit, India
Index