Engineering Geology: Geological Maps for Engineering Geology☆

James S Griffiths, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, United Kingdom

© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction 1
History of Geological Mapping for Engineering 2
Content of the Engineering Geological Map 2
Data Acquisition 2
Map Scale 3
Engineering Geology 3
Geomorphology 4
Geohazards and Georisk 8
Ground Models 10
Conceptual Models 10
Observational or Physical Models 12
Analytical Models 12
Conclusions 12
References 12
Further Reading 13

Glossary
ASTER Advanced spaceborne thermal emission and reflection radiometer. Satellite with scanners covering 14 wavebands that
have a ground resolution of 15–90 m. Open access archive record via https://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov.
DGPS Differential global positioning system; an enhanced GPS (see below) that provides improved accuracy down to 10 cm.
A DGPS uses a network of fixed ground-based reference stations to broadcast the difference between the positions indicated by
the GPS satellite system and known fixed positions.
Geotechnics/Geotechnical engineering The branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of earth
materials, and includes soil mechanics, rock mechanics and foundation engineering. Usually regarded as effectively
synonymous with ground engineering, although now this term would also include the discipline of engineering geology.
GIS Geographical information system; this is an organized set of geolocated and georeferenced digital datasets held within a
computer hardware and software system that allows data capture, storage and processing.
GPS Global positioning system—global navigation satellite system that provides geolocation and time information to a
receiver anywhere there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. The nominal GPS accuracy is 15 m.
IKONOS World’s first commercial satellite launched in 1999 providing very high-resolution imagery. Carried a panchromatic
sensor with 1.0 m ground resolution and 4 multispectral scanners with a ground resolution of 4.0 m, and a scene size coverage
of 11
11 km.
LiDAR Light detection and ranging. An automated ground or airborne laser system to measure distance that can be used to
create detailed contour maps and digital elevation models (DEMs).

Introduction

Geology is a 4-dimensional subject. It deals with the nature and distribution of rocks in three spatial dimensions and their
formation and change through time. One basic tool that has been used to investigate rocks since the recognition of the subject as
a distinct science is the geological map. The first geological map was produced at the end of the 18th century by the canal builder
and surveyor William Smith and his first complete geological map of parts of Scotland, England and Wales, initially sketched out in
1801, has rightly been labeled The Map that Changed the World (Winchester, 2001). Engineering geologists use geological maps as a
base onto which information is added relevant to all aspects of land-use planning, development, regeneration and conservation,
and mineral exploitation, and to plan, construct, and maintain buildings, engineering structures and general infrastructure
(González de Vallejo and Ferrer, 2011). This additional information includes the geotechnical properties of unconsolidated
deposits (labeled as soils by engineering geologists) and rocks, notably the way these materials behave under the stress caused by
excavation or loading and their use as a construction material (Atkinson, 2014). The methods used to describe, investigate, sample
and test soils and rocks follows international codes of practice, and these codes are used in all facets of ground engineering

☆
Change History: April 2019. James S Griffiths has updated the text throughout the article.

Encyclopedia of Geology, 2nd edition https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.11849-4 1

2 Engineering Geology: Geological Maps for Engineering Geology

(Norbury, 2016). Because engineering geology is primarily concerned with surface and near-surface conditions, maps of engineering
geology contain a great deal more information on geomorphology and hydrogeology than standard geological maps. Also, the data
compiled on the engineering geological map may be analyzed to enable a suite of interpretative and derivative maps to be
produced. To facilitate this process, data are usually compiled in a spatial context within the framework of a Geographical
Information System (GIS) that holds all the collected information and can be used for interpretive purposes and to produce
hardcopy outputs or on-screen images. These GIS are also capable of producing computer generated multi-dimensional models of
ground conditions. Such ground models are now a required component of all site investigations for engineering projects in the
United Kingdom (Anon, 2015) and are the equivalent to the concept of ‘site characterization’ in the United States
(Hatheway, 2002).

History of Geological Mapping for Engineering

The maps produced by William Smith were the first chronostratigraphical geological maps, although they were used to solve some
engineering problems associated with canal construction in parts of western England. Culshaw (2004) identified the earliest actual
‘engineering geological map’ in the United Kingdom as that produced by Woodward (1897 and republished in 1906) of London at
a scale of 1:253. Culshaw (op cit.) notes that this was distinguished from a conventional stratigraphic map by the grouping of
geological units ranging in age from the Upper Cretaceous to the Holocene into three lithological series, and, although not labeled
as such, the geotechnical, hydrogeological, geoenvironmental and geohazard conditions for members of each series were discussed
in the memoirs. A comprehensive review of the developments in engineering geological mapping in Europe post-Woodward and up
to 1990 was provided by Dearman (1991). Notable early highlights in this review are the works of: Moldenhauer who produced a
geotechnical map of Danzig in 1919 (Peter, 1966); and Sujkowski and Rozcki (1936) maps of foundation soils in Warsaw. Mapping
of terrain for military purposes, notability in identifying water resources and assessing the suitability of terrain for vehicles or coastal
landings, also advanced during the 2nd World War (e.g. Rose et al., 2019; Rose and Nathanail, 2000) and is part of the early
development of engineering geological mapping.
Apart from Dearman’s own work (e.g. Dearman and Fookes, 1974; Dearman et al., 1977), there were a number of important
publications to note in the post-2nd World War period such as: Povov et al. (1950) in the former USSR who published what appears
to be the first book on the techniques for compiling engineering geological maps; the Geological Society of London Engineering
Group Working Party on the preparation of engineering geological maps (Anon, 1972); the UNESCO/IAEG (1976) report providing
guidelines for the preparation of engineering geological maps; the US Geological Survey (1949) and Varnes (1974) papers
containing suggestions on interpreting geological maps for engineering purposes; and the output from Commission No.1 of the
International Association for Engineering Geology and the Environment (IAEG) on engineering geological mapping, including one
on mapping symbols (Matula et al., 1981). Most of these papers concentrated on the role engineering geological mapping had
supporting civil engineering construction. However, as Dearman (1991) identified, engineering geological mapping also had a
central role in regional and local planning. Maps for this purpose have been given various titles including thematic geological maps,
environmental geological maps, urban geological maps and earth science maps, but in effect they were just another facet of
engineering geological mapping. The value of these was summarized in a key USGS paper by Robinson and Speiker (1978) entitled,
‘Nature to be Commanded.’ These programs of engineering geological mapping concentrated on areas of potential urban develop-
ment and were undertaken in number of countries including: France (Porcher and Guillope, 1979); Spain (Abad et al., 1979),
United States (Briggs, 1977); the former Czechoslovakia (Zebera 1947a,b; Matula and Letko 1980); and the United Kingdom
(Smith and Ellison, 1999).
A compilation of some of the most important papers covering the full breadth of techniques that should be involved in the
preparation of engineering geological maps was brought together in Griffiths (2002). As an indication of the way the scope of
engineering geological mapping had expanded, this collection included papers on engineering geomorphology, hazard mapping,
land surface evaluation, environmental geological maps, and landslide susceptibility mapping. This increase in scope was recog-
nized by Culshaw (2018a), who suggested engineering geological mapping could include: geohazard and georisk maps; urban
geological maps; and maps for the siting of waste disposal sites. Culshaw (op cit.) also recognized that there had been a move from
analog hardcopy paper maps to computer-based digital maps, and that there was a the transition from 2-dimensions to
4-dimensions in map data representation.
Engineering geological maps are fundamental to the preparation of digital 3-dimensional models of ground conditions (i.e.
ground models, Anon, 2015), and this was discussed by Culshaw (2005) and Royse et al. (2009). However, as a note of caution, the
development of digital methodologies along with increasing availability and use of remote sensing data has left some commen-
tators concerned that the field mapping skills, which previously formed the basis of all forms of mapping in engineering geology,
may be being lost (Griffiths, 2014; Privett, 2019), and this would be a retrograde step.

Content of the Engineering Geological Map

Data Acquisition
The techniques used for collecting geological data in the field to enable standard chronostratigraphical maps to be compiled are
well-documented (e.g. Coe, 2010; Lisle et al., 2011) and have been developed progressively through practice over the past 200 years.
 Engineering Geology: Geological Maps for Engineering Geology 3

Field data collection is both assisted and supplemented by information derived from the interpretation of remote sensing data
obtained by both aerial survey and satellites. The end-product is a geological map, that in the past would be presented as a hardcopy
but increasingly is now held in computer files to enable modeling of the geological structures and visualization in three dimensions.
Nevertheless, the final output from geological mapping is the geological map.
Engineering geological mapping is different as it is only one phase of a site investigation, where the purpose is the collection of
all relevant data on ground conditions in order to facilitate environmental appraisal, development planning, resource assessment,
and safe and economic construction. The full scope of a site investigation involves: desk studies of existing data (including
geological maps); acquisition of remote sensing data; field mapping; ground investigations through boreholes, trial pits and
geophysical techniques; soil and rock sampling and testing; interpretation of the data; development of a ground model that
summarizes the integrated understanding of ground conditions prior to the commencement of any works; and updating of the
ground model as new data on ground conditions are acquired during any construction. This workflow is integrated with, and
overlaps with, that undertaken by geotechnical engineers and, in the United Kingdom, this has led to the recognition of engineering
geologists working in civil engineering as part of the overall subject of ground engineering.
A summary of the field components of an engineering geological site investigation from a US perspective are provided by the US
Department of the Interior (2001), and similar documents can be obtained for other countries. The US Department of the Interior
(op cit., volume 1, page 151) notes that, “Geomorphology—study of landforms is often the key to interpreting the geologic history, structure,
lithology, and material at a site.” The publication also states (volume 1, page 151), “Water—the location and amount of groundwater to be
expected in an excavation and how it can be controlled is critical to the overall success of a project.” Thus, engineering geological field
mapping, as part of a site investigation, will require the collection of data on geomorphology and hydrogeology, in addition to:
placing more emphasis on the soil and rock lithologies; the nature of discontinuities that control the mass behavior of rocks; and
details of rock weathering as this affects their strength and suitability for foundations. The nature and aims of geomorphological
mapping were established by Dramis et al. (2011), while the techniques of acquiring information through field mapping were
summarized by Knight et al. (2011) and its development through time by Verstappen (2011). Mapping of hydrogeology to assess
water resources is a long-established technique (e.g. UNESCO, 1970; Castany, 1982), and the effects of groundwater on the
behavior of soils and rocks in construction are well-documented (see Cripps et al., 1986). However, the methods for recording
relevant information during engineering geological mapping is less well documented, but the type of data that needs to be recorded
were presented in Geological Society of London Engineering Geology Working Party Report on the preparation of maps and plans
(Anon, 1972).

Map Scale
Knowing at what the spatial scale a map is to be used will determine the size of feature that can be mapped accurately in the field
and from remote sensing data. One of the problems with map data held in computer files is that such digital ‘maps’ can be viewed
and printed at larger scales than was planned, and at scales that imply a degree of accuracy that the original work had not been set up
to deliver. This is particularly true for any form of earth science map, including geology, geomorphology and engineering geology.
It is possible to locate features within 10 m using GPS, or less than a meter with DGPS, but tracing boundaries between lithologies,
chronostratigraphic units, and landforms requires interpretation in the field and thus is intrinsically less certain. While any
interpreted boundaries will be shown as such on the field mapping sheets, these details can be lost when the final maps are viewed
at larger scales than the original field mapping intended. Thus, from the outset of any mapping exercise, the intended final scale of
the map must be clearly defined so that outcrops, geological boundaries and structures, and other features can be mapped to the
required level of spatial accuracy.
González de Vallejo and Ferrer (2011) classified engineering geological maps according to their spatial scale, and this can be
fitted this into the stages of a site investigation (Table 1). This shows how larger scales of map provide data on the ground conditions
that are increasingly more relevant to detailed design and construction work. However, even in civil engineering, smaller scale maps
have value when comparing different sites (notably for large structures such as dams or power stations) or route alignments (e.g. for
roads, railways, tunnels and pipelines), geohazard mapping, creating conceptual ground models, and undertaking preliminary risk
assessments. However, most use of engineering geological maps at scales of 1:25,000 or smaller has been in development planning
at regional and local levels mainly in and around urban areas, hence their now preferred title, urban geological maps
(Culshaw, 2018b).

Engineering Geology
Although the specific content of any one engineering geological map will depend on the application, the main aim of an
engineering geological mapping program is to produce a map on which the mapped units are defined by engineering properties
or behavior. The limits of the units are determined by changes in the physical and mechanical properties of the materials. The
boundaries of the mapped units may not correlate or coincide with the underlying geological structure or the chronostratigraphic
units as depicted on conventional geological maps. However, experience has shown that the lithology of engineering soils and rocks
can often be effective in defining the engineering geological map units. Apart from these map units, Table 2 presents the type of
additional data that are relevant and could be recorded on the engineering geological map through observations made in the field,
supplemented by desk studies, remote sensing interpretation, and ground investigations using exploratory holes and geophysics
4 Engineering Geology: Geological Maps for Engineering Geology

Table 1 Classification of engineering geological maps according to their scale

Type and scale Content Mapping method Applications

Regional Geological data, lithological groups,
<1:10,000 (smallest tectonic structures, regional
scale usually 1:100,000 morphological features, terrain units,
but in remote areas large areas affected by
smaller scales may be geomorphological processes. General
applicable) information and interpretation of
geotechnical interest
Local Description of soils and rocks according
Desk study phase of a site to recognized international standards,
investigation tectonic structures, major and minor
1:10,000–1:500 discontinuities, morphology, landforms,
geomorphological processes,
hydrogeological and hydrological
conditions, geodynamic processes,
location of possible construction
materials
Local Material properties, geotechnical
Ground investigation conditions, hydrogeology, all aspects of
phase of a site the ground conditions relevant to
investigation carrying out a specific project
1:5000–1:500
Satellite imagery (e.g. ASTER), aerial
photography, previous topographic and
geological maps, existing information
and field observations (limited ground
truthing)
Aerial photography, large-scale satellite
imagery (e.g. IKONOS), LiDAR, ground-
truthing field surveys, discontinuity
surveys, field measurements and data
collection (see Coe, 2010)
All previous data plus information
obtained from boreholes, trial pits and
geophysics, in situ and laboratory tests
Preliminary studies and planning, general
information on the region, types of
material and geomorphological
processes present, general geohazard
and resource mapping, development of
conceptual ground models
Planning and determination of works
viability, site and route alignment
studies, detailed site reconnaissance,
designing ground investigations, basic
engineering design, preliminary cost
estimates, risk assessment, initial site-
specific observational ground model
Detailed information on ground conditions
at specific sites, detailed risk
assessment, detailed design and
analyses, site-specific observation and
analytical ground models

Based on González de Vallejo LI and Ferrer M (2011) Geological engineering. CRC Press/Balkema, Leiden.

when available. Not all these data will be relevant to any one project and the type of information will vary with the mapping scale
(Table 1). An example of a large-scale map for a road project in Sri Lanka produced by Hearn (2011) is provided in Fig. 1. On this
map there is emphasis on the structural geology as this was a major control on local instability in this location. There are also
preliminary design recommendations for the earthworks slopes.
The map in Fig. 1 is presented in its hardcopy format, but it could easily be input as vector data in a GIS enabling the map to be
rapidly updated as new data became available and facilitating integration with other relevant spatial data. When combined with
other information, new maps can be derived, such as: summaries of geohazards; locations of suitable construction resources;
options for alternative alignments or sites; and the scope of proposed ground investigations. In order to present the data from these
derivative maps, and any interpretations made of the data, engineering geological maps will often have an extended legend that will
normally accompany any hard copy maps or be linked through a database to the computer maps.
An example of an extended legend is presented for the United Kingdom in Table 3. This legend accompanied a suite of 1:25,000
scale maps that were used to inform local infrastructure development plans, and that would now be labeled urban geological maps.
Smith and Ellison (1999) established that from the users’ perspective information from these maps was needed to identify the
following:

• Provision of land suitable for development

• Protection and development of mineral resources
• Protection and development of water resources
• Protection of high-quality agricultural land
• Provision of waste disposal sites
• Control of pollution and contamination
• Control of flooding
• Conservation of sites, for whatever reason
The underlying earth science data needed to support these requirements would be presented in a suite of ‘element’ maps that
provided the factual information obtained by mapping (e.g. topography, bedrock and superficial geology, geomorphology, soils).
From these element maps, others could be derived that highlight issues such as slope steepness, geohazards or resources (derived
maps). The users’ particular requirements, such as land suitable for development or that requiring conservation, could then be
displayed on summary maps. Again, all these data should be held within a GIS so they can be updated and interrogated.

Geomorphology
The value of geomorphological mapping (or survey) for highway engineering was recognized in Brunsden et al. (1975). Based on
case studies, Brunsden et al. (op cit.) defined the aims of an engineering geomorphological survey, and these established the input
 Engineering Geology: Geological Maps for Engineering Geology 5

Table 2 Data to be recorded on an engineering geological map, depending on the scale

Geological data
• Map units (chronostratigraphy and lithostratigraphy)
• Geological boundaries (with accuracy indicated)
• Description of soils and rocks using standard engineering geological codes of practice—e.g. Norbury, 2016; U.S Department of the Interior (2001)
• Description of exposures (cross referenced to field notebooks)
• Description of state of weathering and alteration (note depth and degree of weathering)
• Description of discontinuities (as much detail as possible on the nature, frequency, inclination and orientation of all joints, bedding, cleavage, etc.)
• Structural geological data (folding, faulting, etc.)
• Tectonic activity (notably neotectonics, including rates of uplift)
Engineering geology data
• Engineering soil and rock units (based on their engineering geological properties)
• Subsurface conditions (provision of subsurface information if possible, e.g., rockhead isopachytes)
• Geotechnical data of the engineering soil and rock units
• Location of previous site investigations (i.e., the sites of boreholes, trial pits, and geophysical surveys)
• Location of mines and quarries, including whether active or abandoned, dates of working, materials extracted, and whether or not mine plans are available
• Contaminated ground (waste tips, landfill sites, old industrial sites)
• Man-made features, such as earthworks (with measurements of design slope angles, drainage provision, etc.), bridges and culverts (including data on waterway
areas), tunnels and dams
Hydrological and hydrogeological data
• Availability of Information (reference to existing maps, well logs, abstraction data)
• General hydrogeological conditions (notes on: groundwater flow lines; piezometric conditions; water quality; artesian conditions; potability)
• Hydrogeological properties of rocks and soils (aquifers, aquicludes, and aquitards; permeabilities; perched water tables)
• Springs and Seepages (flows to be quantified wherever possible)
• Streams, rivers, lakes, and estuaries (with data on flows, stage heights, and tidal limits)
• Man-made features (canals, leats, drainage ditches, reservoirs)
Geomorphological data (see Smith et al., 2011)
• General geomorphological features (ground morphology; landforms; processes; Quaternary deposits)
• Ground Movement Features (e.g., landslides; subsidence; solifluction lobes; cambering)
Geohazards
• Mass movement (extent and nature of landslides, type and frequency of landsliding, possible estimates of runout hazard, snow avalanche tracks)
• Swelling and shrinking, or collapsible, soils (soil properties)
• Areas of natural and man-made subsidence (karst, areas of mining, over-extraction of groundwater)
• Flooding (areas at risk, flood magnitude and frequency, coastal or river flooding)
• Coastal erosion (cliff form, rate of coastal retreat, coastal processes, types of coastal protection)
• Seismicity (seismic hazard assessment)
• Volcanicity (volcanic hazard assessment)

that assessing the geomorphology can have as part of a broader framework of engineering geological mapping and for the
production of ground models:

• Identify the broad-scale terrain characteristics of the area within which a route corridor[s] or alternative sites are to be placed and
thus provide a basis for an evaluation of alternative alignments and locations, enabling the most hazardous areas to be avoided
wherever possible.
• Define the ‘situation’ characteristics of the selected route corridor or preferred site and thus ascertain the influences upon the
corridor or site from outside its boundaries (e.g. landslides, rockfall). Often, an extensive geomorphological study provides
evidence that would not have been available from a study of the site alone and, therefore, would not have been included in the
subsequent ground investigations.
• Provide a synopsis of the geomorphological development of the area, with special reference to: the availability of local
construction materials (e.g. aggregates); the presence of processes that will affect the structure (road, tunnel building, dam
etc.] or its long-term safety (e.g. changing river courses, floodplains, karst terrain, coastal erosion and deposition, and degraded
landslide slopes).
• Identify and describe the specific hazards both within the route corridor or site and in the surrounding area, especially those
relating to slope stability, ground subsidence, significant fluvial activity, and river or coastal cliff erosion.
• Determine and describe the location, pattern, and magnitude of surface and subsurface drainage features, along with provisional
estimates of the scale of any fluvial or coastal flooding hazards, thereby enabling the early design and costing of drainage
measures.
• Providing a classification of slopes based on their steepness, material composition, mode of development and stability to assist
earthworks estimates and costing of any stability measures.
 6
Engineering Geology: Geological Maps for Engineering Geology
Fig. 1 Example of a large-scale engineering geological map of a road section in Sri Lanka (Hearn, 2011). Reproduced with the kind permission of the Geological Society of London.
 Engineering Geology: Geological Maps for Engineering Geology 7

Table 3 Example of an extended engineering geology legend based on the superficial geology map data in the Applied Geology Map of Stoke-On-Trent (Smith
and Ellison, 1999)

Description Characteristics Planning and Engineering Considerations

Slope stability Excavation Foundations Engineered fill

Alluvium Silts and clays Very soft to firm, low Not applicable as Diggable by Low Generally unsuitable
0.6–9 m thick. to high plasticity, occurs in flat excavator. Heave acceptable
Occurs mainly in medium to high areas may occur at base bearing
the Trent valley compressibility. of excavations. capacity
and tributaries May be desiccated Trench support (<75 kPa)
near top required
Organic in places, Very soft to soft, Sulfate
with peat lenses intermediate to protection
extremely high usually
plasticity. Highly required for
compressible concrete
Sands and gravels Loose to very dense. Running ground
often occur at Water bearing conditions will
base require cut-offs or
dewatering
Periglacial Variable soils Variable. Usually Natural slopes Diggable by Consolidation Generally unsuitable
head derived from cohesive, soft to often excavator settlement
bedrock other stiff, with low to marginally usually
superficial high plasticity. stable small.
deposits. Compressibility Differential
Composition usually settlement
varies according intermediate, but likely where
to the parent may be high. Pre- soft
material. Generally existing shear compressible
consists of sandy, surfaces may be zones
silty clays with present, with low present
gravel and residual friction
cobbles. Forms a angles
thin veneer on
slopes and may
thicken
downslope.
Perched water
tables may occur
within coarser
horizons
The variability of this deposit necessitates careful site
investigation, preferably by trial pitting, to determine the site
characteristics in relation to any proposed development.
Clayey slopes may require drainage and other stabilization
works prior to construction
Glacial Coarse sand and Loose to dense Not applicable as Diggable by Consolidation Suitable for use in embankments
sand subangular to granular deposit. occurs in flat excavator Support settlements if the soft clay zones are
and subrounded gravel Water bearing areas and groundwater small. Pile removed
gravel Occasional control required driving may
subrounded be difficult in
cobbles cobbles.
Sulfate
protection
may be
required for
concrete
Some horizons of Clay/silt horizons are
laminated clay/silt usually soft to stiff,
occur of low to
intermediate
plasticity

(Continued )
8 Engineering Geology: Geological Maps for Engineering Geology

Table 3 (Continued)

Description Characteristics Planning and Engineering Considerations

Slope stability Excavation Foundations Engineered fill

Glacial till Variable deposit, Generally firm to Cut slope of 1V: May be difficult to Usually forms a Suitable if placed in dry weather
(boulder generally sandy, stiff, with low to 2.5H generally dig and can good when moisture content is low
clay) silty clays with intermediate adequate for require ripping. founding
gravel, cobbles plasticity and long term Excavations medium with
and occasional intermediate stability generally stable in acceptable
boulders compressibility the short term but bearing
deteriorate on capacities
exposure and typically 150
wetting. Support to
required for deep 600þkPa)
excavations, and
where sand lenses
occur
Water bearing lenses of sand and gravel may occur
Landslide In the field area all Deposits contain Areas of landslide debris should be avoided if possible. Unsuitable
debris known shear surfaces Constructional activity is likely to reactivate slope movement
occurrences occur with low residual unless appropriate remedial measures are taken
in weathered strengths.
mudstones of the Remolded clay
Etruria Formation debris is generally
poorly drained
with possible
perched water
tables
Detailed site investigation is essential with extensive use of
exploratory holes and geophysics. If construction is
unavoidable groundwater and ground movement monitoring
is essential

• Characterize the extent, type, depth, rate and susceptibility of the area to weathering, karst development, mining subsidence or
erosion.
• Clearly define the shape and extent of geomorphological units (such as fans, scree slopes and terraces) in order to (i) provide a
framework within which the detailed ground investigations can be designed with optimum location of boreholes and trial pits
for maximum economic efficiency for a given return of information; and (ii) enable the findings of the ground investigation to
be extended from the sample points.

An excellent example of geomorphological mapping for engineering is the work on the proposed bridge crossing on the Tamur River
in Nepal (Fig. 2) that was included as a case study in Brunsden et al. (1975). In an era that predated widespread availability of large-
scale satellite imagery, this map was produced by a field mapping program using base plans enlarged from British Survey of India
maps (1:63,360–1:250,00), and enlargements of limited but poor-quality aerial photographs ranging in scale between 1:10,000
and 1:20,000. The quality of the end-product is testament to the skill of the field team.
Meeting the aims identified above would ensure that the geomorphological mapping input for a project both supplemented and
complemented the results of the engineering geological mapping, whether for civil engineering construction or development
planning. However, it also highlights the importance of locating and identifying ‘geo’-hazards, and this aspect of engineering
geological mapping has developed significantly since Dearman (1991).

Geohazards and Georisk

Culshaw (2018b) defined geohazards as ‘a geological source of danger,’ and Table 4 is a list of the common geohazards. As indicated
in Table 2, identifying geohazards is key element of engineering geological mapping and is part of the site investigation process.
A ‘hazard’ was defined by Nadim (2013) as, “. . ..an event, phenomenon, process, situation, or activity that may potentially be harmful to the
affected population and damaging to the society and the environment. A hazard is characterized by its location, magnitude, geometry, frequency,
or probability or occurrence and other characteristics’.” Field mapping should be able to identify the location of existing geohazards of
the type listed in Table 4 and comment on the likely location of future events, but estimates of the frequency or probability of
 Engineering Geology: Geological Maps for Engineering Geology 9

Fig. 2 Geomorphological map of the site and situation of a proposed bridge crossing on the Tamur River, Eastern Nepal. Approximate map scale 1:12,500
(Brunsden et al., 1975). Reproduced with the kind permission of the Geological Society of London (NB COALMA refers to the original route alignment proposed by the
engineering project team).
10 Engineering Geology: Geological Maps for Engineering Geology

Table 4 Classification of geohazards

Process category Nature of the geohazard

Geomorphological Eolian soils (loess); dissolution (karst, sinkholes etc.); erosion; desiccation; mass movement (snow avalanches; cambering; landslides
etc.); permafrost
Geotechnical Acidity; collapsing soils; compressible soils; dispersive soils; expansive soils; quick clay; saline soils; residual soils
Hydrological or Groundwater level change; floods
hydrogeological
Geological Earthquakes (all aspects of ground motion); fault movement; liquefaction; ground subsidence; surface rupture; tsunamis; volcanic
eruptions; dome collapse; pyroclastic flows; lahars; debris flows and avalanches; lava flows; ash/tephra falls; large volcanic
projectiles; volcanic gases
Marine Coastal erosion; submarine landslides; fluid escape features (such as liquefaction); gas release (e.g. gas hydrates); scour; turbidity
currents
Artificial Acid mine drainage; artificial ground; brownfield sites; contamination; landfill; mining hazards of subsidence and collapse; pollution;
unfilled, partially filled, and filled excavations and voids

Based on Culshaw MG (2018b). Geohazards. In Bobrowsky PT, and Marker B (eds.) Encyclopedia of engineering geology. Springer International, Cham, Switzerland, 381–389.

occurrence requires a more detailed analysis and a wider range of data. The starting point will be geohazard inventories. These are
lists, databases and maps showing the location of existing geohazards, their date of occurrence and their characteristics. In addition
to field mapping, in these inventories the data sources that would need to be accessed include historical records and sequential
remote sensing imagery in order to establish the frequency of occurrence of the geohazards and the factors controlling their nature,
scale, and severity. Once the level of hazard has been established, this can then be combined with societal information, including
present or planned infrastructure development and population data, for the level of risk to be calculated. This information can be
compiled in a GIS with the output being derivative engineering geological maps of georisk.
The creation of geohazard and georisk maps is best demonstrated through the example of an assessment of a landslide
geohazard, and one of the most comprehensive programs of study for this has been undertaken in the 670 km2 natural terrain
land area of the Territory of Hong Kong (Ng et al., 2014). The first stage in the process was the compilation of a natural terrain
landslide inventory (NTLI) that started in 1995, initially using aerial photographs, and by 2003 some 30,000 landslides had been
catalogued and information on their location, type, age and causal factors contained in a database. Using these data, Evans and King
(1999) produced a landslide susceptibility zoning map based on the correlation between natural terrain landslides, slope angle and
geology. However, the need to improve this dataset was recognized and a systematic program of landslide investigation was
undertaken, with the result that an enhanced natural terrain landslide inventory (ENTLI) was compiled which by 2009 contained
records of more than 100,000 landslides (Dias et al., 2009). Using the ENTLI, an inventory of hillside catchments with historical
natural terrain landslides that occurred close to existing building and important transport corridors was generated and this formed
the basic dataset for planning the priority ranking and implementation of risk mitigation works for vulnerable hillsides flanking
existing developments in Hong Kong (Ng et al., 2014). Nevertheless, this was based on existing failures, therefore the work was
extended by identifying hillsides that adjoined these historic landslide catchments that had similar topographical, geological,
geomorphological, and environmental settings. These could also affect areas of development as they may also be susceptible to
failure and, therefore, posed a risk. While the recommendation is always that detailed site-specific investigations will always be
necessary, the Geotechnical Engineering Office was able to complete a global quantitative risk assessment (QRA) for the whole of
Hong Kong (Cheng and Ko, 2010) using such comprehensive datasets that provided the key information for the formulation of a
natural terrain risk management strategy. This work is on-going (e.g. Ng, 2014).
While Hong Kong is not unique, its work on landside hazard and risk is a superb example of what can be achieved when
engineering geological mapping is combined with detailed analyses of derivative data to assess the risk to infrastructure and guide
development planning. However, mapping geohazards and determining the risk they pose to existing and proposed human
developments represents just the most recent phase in the application of engineering geological mapping.

Ground Models

In engineering geology, the ground model is now accepted as one of the critical outputs from any site investigation, drawing on all
phases of study, including engineering geological mapping. The IAEG Commission 25 identified three types of engineering
geological model (Parry et al., 2014).

Conceptual Models
These are essentially qualitative in nature and illustrate the key features of a geological situation and the processes active in that
environment. Parry et al. (2014) indicated that these can be subdivided into generalized conceptual models, site specific conceptual
 Engineering Geology: Geological Maps for Engineering Geology
Fig. 3 Fookes et al. (2007) three-dimensional conceptual ground model for hot deserts. Reproduced with permission from Whittles Publishing.

11
12 Engineering Geology: Geological Maps for Engineering Geology

models, and evolutionary models. Fig. 3 provides an example of an analog generalized conceptual model for an active hot desert
environment (from Fookes et al., 2007). This model does not represent any specific location, but constitutes an amalgamation
comprising the features and associated geomorphological processes found in hot deserts. Within the model there is information on
both the geohazards and the ground conditions that occur in this environment. This represents a visual checklist of the features and
processes that the engineering geologist and geomorphologist working on projects in hot desert terrain might encounter and are
relevant to engineering design decisions. Conceptual models like this are a very effective communication tool when working with
non-specialists, who need an informed understanding of ground conditions to make decisions or register concerns, this might
include politicians, planners, accountants, lawyers and the general public.

Observational or Physical Models

These are scaled-down versions of actual ground conditions at specific sites. These models represent the interpretation of actual data
collected from all sources. Observational models are the most useful for supporting geotechnical engineers in the detailed design of
foundations and earthworks. Again, these can be a very effective communication tool, particularly when working with lawyers on
any construction claims or litigation cases.

Analytical Models
These are representations of reality using mathematical formulae, different media, or schematic diagrams. In slope instability
studies, kinematic analysis, limit equilibrium, continuum (i.e. finite element and finite difference), and discontinuum (i.e. discrete
element and brittle fracture) modeling would all fall under this category (for a discussion on these various types of models see Stead
and Coggan, 2012). Such models fall more readily within the purview of the geotechnical engineer, although the accuracy of the
input parameters, including the ground geometry and subsurface lithology and structure, will be dependent on the input from
engineering geologists.
Observational and analytical engineering geological models can only be compiled with accuracy once site specific field data have
been collected, although preliminary versions of such models may be produced during the desk studies. However, input from a
ground investigation and large-scale field mapping is necessary for detailed design work. These models must be updated regularly as
new data are obtained and, therefore, remain as ‘live’ documents unlike the more ‘static’ conceptual models that are used during the
planning and feasibility stages of a project. This means that the data underpinning the ground model must be held in a computer-
based system where the output is no longer the analog conceptual models of Fookes (1997), but digital 3-dimensional models as
found in Royse et al. (2009) and Culshaw (2005).

Conclusions

Engineering geological mapping has a long history and is recognized as a cost-effective method of compiling field data for planning
development and infrastructure projects in mining and civil engineering. Mapping has also proved to be an efficient basis for
building the ground model that is an essential element of all ground investigations. Engineering geological maps should be based
on field studies, supplemented by desk studies and interpretation of remote sensing information. All data need to be complied in a
GIS to allow rapid updating and effective integration with all other information obtained about on ground conditions through the
phases of desk studies, remote sensing interpretation, ground investigation, and construction.

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Further Reading
Bobrowsky PT and Marker B (eds.) (2018) Encyclopedia of engineering geology, 978 pp. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International.
Fletcher CJN (2016) Geology for ground engineering projects, 293 pp. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Fookes PG, Lee EM, and Milligan G (2005) Geomorphology for Engineers, 851 pp. Caithness: Whittles.
Fookes PG, Pettifer G, and Waltham T (2015) Geomodels in Engineering Geology. Caithness: Whittles.
Griffiths JS and Martin CJ (2017) Engineering Geology and Geomorphology of Glaciated and Periglaciated Terrains. In: Geological Society Engineering Geology Special Publication, 28,
London, 953 pp.
Hencher S (2012) Practical Engineering Geology. Applied geotechnics. vol. 4, 450 pp. London: Spon Press.
14 Engineering Geology: Geological Maps for Engineering Geology

Kiersch GA (ed.) (1991) The heritage of engineering geology: The first hundred years, vol. 3, 605 pp. Boulder, Colorado: The Geological Society of America Centennial Special Volume.
Lee EM and Jones DKC (2014) Landslide Risk Assessment, 2nd edn., 509 pp. London: ICE Publishing.
Teeuw RM (ed.) (2007) Mapping Hazardous Terrain using Remote Sensing, Geological Society Special Publication, 283, London, 169 pp.
Turner AK and Schuster RL (eds.) (1996) Landslides: Investigation and mitigation, 673 pp. Washington D.C: Transportation Research Board, National Academy Press.
Verstappen HT (1983) Applied geomorphology: Geomorphological surveys for environmental development, 437 pp. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Relevant Websites
https://www.brgm.eu—BRGM. French Geological Survey. Accessed 21st Jan. 2019.
https://bgs.ac.uk British Geological Survey Accessed 21st Jan. 2019.
https://csiro.au/en/Research/Environment—CSIRO Accessed 21st Jan. 2019.
https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/resources/maps—Geological Survey of Canada. Accessed 21st Jan. 2019.
https://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/about/organisation/org_geo.html—GEO. Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong. Accessed 21st Jan. 2019.
https://www.iaeg.info—International Association for Engineering Geology and the Environment. Accessed 21st Jan. 2019.
https://www.usgs.gov—United States Geological Survey. Accessed 21st Jan. 2019.