LIME

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 JRD TATA India’s First Licensed Pilot

Jehangir Ratanji Dadabhoy

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Dilip recounted that the passenger sitting on the seat next to his was elderly and was quietly reading his newspaper,
occasionally looking outside. With no airs around him, he sipped the tea when it arrived. And while rest of the co-
passengers kept looking in Dilip’s direction, this gentleman kept to himself, unperturbed and nonchalant.

This unconcerned attitude of this man left Dilip uneasy who was used to being thronged, lauded and pushed for
attention. This is when Dilip in his attempt to strike a conversation asked him, “Do you watch films?"

The man replied,

"Oh, very few. I did see one many years ago"
Dilip took the chance to tell him that he worked in films. To this, the man next to him asked, "Oh, that's nice. What do
you do?"

Dilip Kumar; "I am a film actor"

Man; "Oh, wonderful?" There was no further exchange of thoughts whatsoever.
Once the fight hit the runway, Dilip Kumar held out his hand to the man and said, "It was good to travel with you. By the
way, my name is Dilip Kumar"

The man shook hand and smiled,

"Thank you. I am J.R.D. Tata"

As C.S. Lewis said, “True humility is not thinking less of yourself; it is thinking of yourself less.”

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Introduction
 Important cementing materials
 Cementing material: The material which has the capacity of holding structural
units (like bricks, stones, aggregate)
 Examples: Lime, natural cements, gypsum, Portland cement
 Lime is an oxide of calcium, CaO
 Uses: Ordinary buildings, massive monuments, palaces, forts
 Reliable and economical cementing material
 Classification: based on its composition
 i) Quicklime
 ii) Hydrated lime
 iii) Hydraulic lime

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Classification
 Quicklime: also called Fat lime, Rich lime, Hydrated Lime:
Pure lime • In this sufficiently quantity of water
 Content: CaO (93%), remaining MgO and has already been added at the
very little clay manufacturing stage to hydrate
 Amorphous (shapeless) white material (slake) it completely.
 Very high affinity for water and carbon
dioxide • In composition, it is Ca(OH)2
 Absorb from atmosphere and converting • In structure, it is powder form
itself to a carbonate of calcium • Ready to use form compared to fat
CaO + CO2 = CaCO3 lime that has to be hydrated or
CaO + H2O = Ca(OH)2 slaked before using
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 = CaCO3 + H2O • Lime can also be converted to
hydrated form at the place of
construction, method is called
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slaking of lime
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Classification
 Hydraulic Lime: content CaO, clay 10 to 30% by weight
 This clay plus lime composition gives the hydraulic lime a property of hydraulicity.
 Hydraulicity: The capacity to set and harden even under water and in the absence
of air as between very thick walls
 Subdivision based on hydraulicity:
 Class A – Eminently Hydraulic: clay content 21-30%, sets under water in 24 hours
 Class B – Moderately Hydraulic: clay content 11-20%, sets in water in about a week
 Class C – Feebly Hydraulic: clay content 5-10%, sets under water within a month or
more
 Class D – rich in magnesium, suitable only for finishing coats, do not possess
hydraulicity

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MANUFACTURE OF FAT LIME
Source Material:
 Lime stone which is a sedimentary rock
 Constitution of lime stone rock:
 Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) – 60 to 65%, higher percentage of CaCO3
better suited for lime stone
 Magnesium Carbonate Mg(CO3)2 – 5 to 30%, for fat lime its content should
not be greater than 5%
 Clay - 10 to 30%, for fat lime its content should be less than 10%, higher clay
content more suited for hydraulics lime
 Iron, alkalies and sulphates – small proportions, total content is less than 5%

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 MANUFACTURE OF FAT LIME
 Calcination (process of burning): “Heating the material at red heat in the
presence of air till it decomposes”
CaCO3 880⁰ C CaO + CO2
 Lime stone dissociates when heated at 880⁰ C into its principal constituents;
Calcium oxide and carbon dioxide, as per above reaction which is reversible.
 It is essential that,
 all the carbon dioxide produced during the reaction is removed quickly from
the kiln
 the dissociation temperature of reaction (880⁰ C ) is not allowed to come
down during the burning process

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 MANUFACTURE OF FAT LIME – CLAMP BURNING
 To obtain small supplies of quick lime
 No permanent construction
 Small part of ground is cleared and fuel (wood)
stacked in alternate layers with fuel as lower
layer.
 If coal is used as fuel, it is mixed with the
limestone instead of stacking in separate layers.
 The whole heap is covered with mud plaster and
small holes are left for escape of carbon dioxide.
 Clamp is ignited from the base and allowed to
keep on burning for 2-3 days.
 Burning is discontinued when blue flame
disappears at the top and it is allowed to cool
for 2-3 days.
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 It is quick and cheap method for
obtaining ordinary type of lime and
not suitable for large supplies of fat
lime of good quality because;
 Burning is neither uniform nor
complete
 Some stones may be overburnt and
some may be underburnt
 Wastage of heat due to frequent
cracking of the plaster on getting
heated
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 MANUFACTURE OF FAT LIME – KILN BURNING
 Commercial lime is manufactured
 Permanent structure
 Batch type (intermittent) kiln / Continuous kiln
 Mixed feed (flame type) kiln – fuel and limestone are in a mixed together batch,
burnt lime is obtained mixed with ash and has to be separated from it.
 Separate feed (flare type) kiln – fuel and limestone are not in contact with each
other, fuel is burnt separately, hot gases are allowed to heat limestone and lime is
free from ash.

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 MANUFACTURE OF FAT LIME – KILN BURNING
(1) Batch type (intermittent) kiln:
Permanent brick-walled structure
• Rectangular, Oval or Cylindrical
shapes
• Walls of kiln are lined with refractory
bricks to save them from
disintegration due to repeated heating
at high temperatures and cooling.
• Openings for supply of air, permanent
roof may or may not be there.
• After loading, kiln is ignited at bottom,
fire travels upwards and takes 3-4
days for burning and allowed to cool
by itself and then unloaded and
cleaned.
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 MANUFACTURE OF FAT LIME – KILN BURNING
(2) Continuous kiln:
 It is charged regularly from one end with the raw material and the end product is taken out regularly
from the other end.
 No need to cool the kiln every time after burning
 Rate of production of lime is higher than other types of kilns
 Types – shaft kiln, rotary kiln, circular kiln

(A) Mixed feed (flame type) continuous kiln:

 Partly underground and partly over ground, consists of a shaft or a cylinder of suitable dimensions
 Diameter – in middle greatest, at top intermediate and at bottom least
 Variation in diameter accumulate large amount of limestone in the central part as it is hottest zone
and ensures complete calcination
 The shaft is lined internally with refractory bricks
 A grating plate is at the base of the shaft, which is full of holes to allow the burnt lime pieces to fall
down in the collecting chamber

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 MANUFACTURE OF FAT LIME – KILN BURNING
 At top hopper type arrangement for loading the charge and at bottom draw-gates are
provided for withdrawing the lime after cooling
 At lower region opening is provided for supply of fresh air, at middle region holes for
observation of the reaction and at top openings is for leading the waste gases out of kiln
 Alternate layers of limestone and fuel is placed and then ignited through burn holes
 Main calcination reaction takes place in the central burning zone of the kiln.
 At uppermost zone charge is heated up which helps in its quicker calcinations as it slides
down.
 When limestone in the burning zone is completely converted to lime, it slides down and
falls into collecting chamber.
 Hot lime dropped in the basal zone is first cooled by introducing fresh air.
 The charging and emptying operations are continued in this manner in a regular sequence

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 MANUFACTURE OF FAT LIME – KILN BURNING
(B) Separate feed (flare type) continuous kiln:
 Design is similar to mixed feed type
 Consists of shaft made of steel or brick, lined internally with refractory bricks.
 Bigger diameter in the central zone for burning, intermediate diameter in the basal zone and
small diameter at top for charging.
 Separate fuel chamber which is located within the main body or outside the kiln
 In first case, fuel chamber is placed in box type around the periphery of the shaft where fuel
is burnt to generate heat which is conducted into kiln.
 In second case, fuel is burnt outside the kiln and hot gases are allowed to enter into kiln.
 In any case, there is no contact between the fuel and the limestone.
 After calcination of limestone, it is fall in the lower cooling zone with help of raking rods
 The hot lime is cooled by fresh air in the basal chambers and once it becomes hot rises
upward in the burning zone of the kiln.
 Better utilization of heat in this kiln.

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 Continuous Flare-type:
Separate Feed Kiln
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 MANUFACTURE OF HYDRAULIC LIME
 Clay content is ranging from 10-30 %

(A) Natural Hydraulic Lime: single raw material, an impure limestone rich in clay known as
Kankar
 Kankar contains 10-40 % clay and 60-80 % calcium carbonate.
 Calcination of kankar is done in clamp or in kiln in similar manner for fat lime.
 Temperature is raised to higher degree because of presence of enough clay and then cooled
and packed.

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B) Artificial Hydraulic Lime: two source materials – limestone rock, clay
 Limestone should be free from impurities and clay should not contain any free
silica, oxides of iron, sulphur, alkalies
 Calcination depends upon the quality of limestone.
(i) Limestone is of soft type (e.g. chalk) – such a stone is mixed with clay in
powdered form and burn to red head in any type of kiln and then burnt
mixture is slaked on cooling before marketing
(ii) Limestone is of hard type (e.g. compact limestone) – Calcined in kiln to
obtain quick lime and then cooled and powdered, mixed with clay (10-30 %
by weight) and mixture is converted into ball shaped masses
 These balls are once again charged into the kiln and burnt to red heat so it is
known as Twice Kilned Lime

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 PROPERTIES OF LIME
 Physical state: Lime in the shape of solid lump is termed as lump lime.
 Lime is crushed to obtain powder of required fineness known as Pulverized lime.
 Slaking of Lime or Hydration: the process of chemical combination of lime with
a definite quantity of water so end product is hydrated oxide.
 When lime cannot absorb any more water then process is completed.
CaO + H2O = Ca(OH)2
 The above reaction is attended by following processes:
(i) Evolution: heat is generated of the order of 227 K-Cal/kg of lime
(ii) Expansion: volume extent up to 2-3 times
(iii) Development: hissing and cracking sound due to conversion of water into heat
 Fat lime hydrates in 3-4 hours and hydraulic lime hydrates 1-3 days.
 All limes must be slaked before use in building construction.

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 Methods of slaking
 Tank Slaking (Making Lime Putty): Two brick tanks of suitable dimensions are constructed
adjoining to each other and with a difference in level.
 The first tank is about 45 cm deep and made at a height, second tank is 60-75 cm deep and made at a
lower level.
 Water is filled in the upper tank to ¾th of its depth. Fat lime is gradually added to it in small amounts,
water is constantly stirred during the addition of lime.
 The slaking reaction takes place in this tank, which can be observed by evolution of heat and hissing
and cracking sound.
 3-4 hours for complete hydration
 The lime on reaction with excess water forms milk of lime.
Tank Slaking
 Screening tap called strainer (with openings of 0.25mm) is opened and the hydrated lime allowed to
pass into the lower tank.
 It is allowed to stay in second day for 2-3 days where it matures itself to the desired consistency. This
is ready as Lime Putty and is taken out for use of making mortars and plasters.
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 Methods of slaking
 Platform Slaking (For powder slaked lime): water-tight platform of masonry or
cement-concrete
 Fat lime is spread in the form of a thin layer of about 15 cm height.
 Small quantity of water is sprayed.
 During the water-sprinkling process, lime heap is turned over and over again using
spades.
 When apparent slaking is complete (as indicated by absence of further hissing and
cracking sound), no further water is added.
 The heap is covered with boards so that any further heat liberated on slacking is
used by the lime for its complete disintegration.
 It is left for 24 hours during which time slaking may be completed.
 Lime is turned into a powder form of hydrated lime which is screened through 0.25
mesh sieve and ready for use of making mortars and plasters.
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 PROPERTIES OF LIME
 Plasticity: ability of the lime to spread evenly during application
 Limes contains some magnesium oxide – more plastic, spread smoothly and easily
 Limes rich in calcium oxide – pure fat lime, hard to work, sticky and stiff quickly
 Sand carrying capacity: lime used in mortar or plaster has to be mixed with sand due to
(i) To control shrinkage of lime on setting
(ii) To prepare a properly plastic mix of desired strength
 Limes mix with the definite quantity of sand known as sand carrying capacity of lime.
 Calcium limes – good sand carrying capacity than magnesium limes
 Setting:
(a) Dehydration – loss of water from the hydrated lime by evaporation
Ca(OH)2 = CaO + H2O
(b) Carbonation – combining of atmospheric carbon dioxide into lime, forming once again the
original material i.e. limestone
CaO + CO2 = CaCO3

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PROPERTIES OF LIME / HANDLING AND STORAGE OF
LIME
 Setting:
 Hydrated fat lime sets slowly compared to pure fat lime.
 Rate of setting of hydrated lime can be increased by drying air and charging it with CO2
 Shrinkage takes place in lime on setting which can be overcome by mixing sand or surkhi.
 Handling and storage of lime:
(i) Quick lime – protected from water, as it will start getting hydrated with the evolution of
heat that can cause burn injuries.
 If it is stored in wooden barrels and it comes in contact with water, so much heat may be
evolved to burn barrel, store house or the wagons/trucks in which it is being transported.
(ii) Fat lime – protected from atmospheric moisture and carbon dioxide which starts setting
and gets converted to a useless hard material having no binding properties.
 It is required to convert the lime into lime putty as soon as possible and stored into a
compact heat covered with a thick layer of lime dust which saves the attack of moist air.
(iii) Hydraulic lime – safer in transport and can be stored for longer period

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 HANDLING AND STORAGE OF LIME
 Precautions to handle lime:
 Workers handling lime must be asked to use goggles, respirators, rubber gloves and
gum boots for protection of eyes, respiratory system, hands and feet respectively.
 Thorough bath should be taken after working with lime.
 Any inflammable material should never be kept near a heap or bag of lime or where
lime is being hydrated to avoid any accidental fires.

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 USES OF LIME
 Uses of lime:
(a) As a construction material:
 as a mortar (lime-mortar) mixed with sand or surkhi
 as a plaster
 as a whitewash which gives sparking white finish at a very low cost
 as a lime-concrete similar to cement concrete made by mixing lime, sand and coarse aggregate in
proper proportions
 as sand-lime bricks which are quite popular in many countries
(b) As an industrial material:
 in the metallurgical industry
 as a refractory material for lining metallurgical furnaces
 as a raw material for the manufacture of glass
(c) An agricultural input:
 to improve productive qualities of soil and added to the poor soils to enrich their lime content
 used for soil stabilization

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 Properties Fat Lime Hydraulic Lime
Colour COMPARATIVE
White colour STUDY OF FAT LIME AND HYDRAULIC
Grayish white
Composition LIME CaO with 10-30% clay
CaO with subordinate amount of clay
Slaking (i) Slakes vigorously (i) Slakes gently
qualities (ii) Enough heat is liberated that creates (ii) Not much heat is liberated, so no hissing
hissing and cracking sounds sounds
(iii) Expands 2-3 times (iii) Expands 1-2 times
(iv) Slaking time 3-4 hours (iv) Slaking time 24-48 hours
Setting Setting involves absorption of carbon Has double setting action. CaO content may set as
dioxide from atmosphere resulting in fat lime and clay forms hydrated aluminates and
calcium carbonate. silicates of calcium similar to cement on setting.
It cannot set under water as it does not have It can set under water as it has property of
property of hydraulicity hydraulicity

Strength Not very strong in mortar so may not be used Quite strong mortars so can be used in foundation
where high strength binders are required and wall in place of Portland cement
Uses White-washing, plastering, making mortars Use for making mortar in load bearing construction
Use as a flux in industry and for soil for underground and over-ground superstructures
improvement
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 TESTS FOR LIME
1. Chemical Composition: To determine ratio of different components such as CaO, MgO,
SiO2,AlO2 and iron oxide
 The limits of component should be as per IS:712-1973
2. Fineness: To determine the fineness of grain size by sieve analysis
 The residue is weighed after the test and should not exceeds the specified limits.
3. Soundness: The capacity of lime to resist expansion on setting
 Le Chatelier apparatus
 Lime is mixed with sand and water and filled in mould of the apparatus.
 The distance between the indicator points is noted and after one hour placed in a steam
boiler for three hours.
 After the boiling action, the distance between the indicators is noted once again.
 Difference between the two readings gives a measure of soundness which should be within
prescribed limit.

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TESTS FOR LIME
4. Setting Time: The time that elapses between the preparing of lime paste of standard
consistency and setting of the same paste after it has been filled in a standard mould
(Vicat Mould) to a minimum specified depth.
 Initial setting time: The time that elapses from the gauging to the penetration of the
Vicat needle in the paste up to a specified depth – 35mm
 Final setting time: The time that elapses from the gauging to a time when Vicat needle
can no more penetrate the paste (because it is already set) and makes only a mark on
the surface.
5. Strength: Tested by preparing specimens of standard sand-lime mortar
 For compressive strength – average of 12 specimens, tested on standard testing
machine on specimens taken after 14 days and 28 days
 For transverse strength – average of 6 specimens, tested on standard transverse
strength testing machine
 The setting time and strength tests are recommended for hydraulic limes only.

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