ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND CIVIL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

Name:Lami adamu
ID No :0636/11

Submitted to: Tewodros ali

Submitted date:mar15/2021
1. Briefly describe properties, production process and application area of
A.Lime is a calcium-containing inorganic mineral composed primarily of oxides, and hydroxide,
usually calcium oxide and/ or calcium hydroxide. It is also the name for calcium oxide which
occurs as a product of coal-seam fires and in altered limestone xenoliths in volcanic ejecta.[1]
The word lime originates with its earliest use as building mortar and has the sense of sticking or
adhering.
● Lime Production Process involves four steps:
● 1) Mining or Quarrying
Limestone material is extracted carefully to maintain its purity in underground mines and
quarries all over the world
● 2) Stone Preparation
In this step, the limestone is crushed and screened to further wash and remove impurities
● 3) Lime Calcining (Conversion of limestone (CaCo3) to lime (CaO))
Limestone is a source of calcium carbonate and is heated to convert the calcium
carbonate into calcium oxide. This process is generally carried out in large rotary kilns or
vertical shaft kilns where high temperature is required. Quicklime is produced in the
calcination process, which can be crushed depending on it's use
● 4) Hydrating
In this step, hydrated also known as slaked lime is produced by reacting quicklime with
water.
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)
Application area of Lime
These materials are still used in large quantities as building and engineering materials
(including limestone products, cement, concrete, and mortar), as chemical feedstocks,
and for sugar refining, among other uses. Lime industries and the use of many of the
resulting products date from prehistoric times in both the Old World and the New World.
Lime is used extensively for wastewater treatment with ferrous sulfate. The rocks and
minerals from which these materials are derived, typically limestone or chalk, are
composed primarily of calcium carbonate. They may be cut, crushed, or pulverized and
chemically altered. Burning (calcination) of these minerals in a lime kiln converts them
into the highly caustic material burnt lime, unslaked lime or quicklime (calcium oxide)
 and, through subsequent addition of water, into the less caustic (but still strongly
alkaline) slaked lime or hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2), the process of
which is called slaking of lime. When the term is encountered in an agricultural context,
it usually refers to agricultural lime, which today is usually crushed limestone, not a
product of a lime kiln. Otherwise it most commonly means slaked lime, as the more
dangerous form is usually described more specifically as quicklime or burnt lime
B.Gypsum.is a very soft mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate and often occurs in nature as
flattened and often twinned crystals and transparent cleavable masses called selenite.
And Gypsum production process
Gypsum ore, from quarries and underground mines, is crushed and stockpiled near a plant. Asneeded,
the stockpiled ore is further crushed and screened to about 50 millimeters (2 inches) in diameter. If the
moisture content of the mined ore is greater than about 0.5 weight percent, the ore must be dried in a
rotary dryer or a heated roller mill. Ore dried in a rotary dryer is conveyed to a roller mill, where it is
ground to the extent that 90 percent of it is less 149 micrometers (µm)(100 mesh). The ground gypsum
exits the mill in a gas stream and is collected in a product cyclone. Ore is sometimes dried in the roller
mill by heating the gas stream, so that drying and grinding are accomplished simultaneously and no
rotary dryer is needed. The finely ground gypsum ore is known as landplaster, which may be used as a
soil conditioner.
Five stages of gypsum production line
Gypsum processing equipment differs significantly in scale and level of technology. some plants
produce one or two tonnes per day using low-cost manual technologies, some other plants of a thousand
tonnes per day that are highly mechanized and capable of producing different types and grades of
gypsum plaster or plaster boards.
There are five basic stages in gypsum processing:
• Excavation is sometimes carried out by digging out an area of ground where the gypsum is
located using open-cast techniques. To reach deeper deposits drift or shaft mines may be needed. The
drilling and digging equipment is applied to dig out the gypsum ore in excavation stages.
• Crushing the gypsum rock is advisable before processing further, especially if subsequent
heating is to be done in a pan rather than a shaft kiln. Crushing should reduce the gypsum to grains of
less than a few millimetres across. Jaw crusher is the most popular crushing plant for size reduction of
big massive material, impact crusher and cone crusher will also be used for fine crushing.
• Screening with a sieve will remove large grains which have not been crushed properly and which
may contain impurities.
• Grinding, for example in a ball, rod, or hammer mill, is necessary if the gypsum is to be used for
high quality plasterwork or for moulding, medical, or industrial applications. Unlike with other cements,
such as lime and Ordinary Portland Cement, special mills for mineral grinding may not be required and
the relatively soft gypsum could be pulverised in agricultural mills.
• Heating may be done in a number of ways involving a range of technology levels and costs.
rotary dryer will be applied to dewatering the materials, and cyclone collector will gather the final
gypsum powder for final application.
Gypsum application area is primarily used as a finish for walls and ceilings, and is known in
construction as drywall, wallboard, sheetrock or plasterboard. Gypsum blocks are used like concrete
blocks in building construction.

Applications area of Gypsum:

In addition to building materials and cement raw materials, gypsum can also be used to many other
fields such as making sulfuric acid, rubber, plastics industry, fertilizer, pesticide, paint, textile industry,
foodstuff, medicine, daily chemical products, arts and crafts and culture and education. Gypsum is
divided into raw gypsum and plaster of Paris. Raw gypsum will be transformed into plaster of Paris
after superfine raw gypsum power is heated. Plaster of Paris will solidify when meeting water. This is
applicable to fixation of fractured limbs, artware, mould, etc

2. Identify the main difference between Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and Pozzolanic Portland
cement.
Difference between OPC and PPC:
● Pozzolana materials such as fly ash, volcanic ash are added to OPC so that PPC is created. Hence
PPC is just a variation of OPC.
● Both PPC and OPC cements are ecofriendly. But PPC employs natural and industrial waste
which reduces the environment pollution.
● In OPC cement there are 3 grades available and the strength of PPC matches OPC 33 after the
process of curing.
● PPC has low initial setting strength than OPC but it hardens over time with proper curing.
● PPC is cheaper than OPC.

3. List and discuss the basic manufacturing processes of Portland cement.

There are four stages in the manufacture of portland cement: (1) crushing and grinding the raw
materials, (2) blending the materials in the correct proportions, (3) burning the prepared mix in a
kiln, and (4) grinding the burned product, known as “clinker,” together with some 5 percent of
gypsum (to control the time of set of the cement). The three processes of manufacture are known
as the wet, dry, and semidry processes and are so termed when the raw materials are ground wet
and fed to the kiln as a slurry, ground dry and fed as a dry powder, or ground dry and then
moistened to form nodules that are fed to the kiln.
It is estimated that around 4–8 percent of the world’s carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions come
from the manufacture of cement, making it a major contributor to global warming. Some of the
solutions to these greenhouse gas emissions are common to other sectors, such as increasing the
energy efficiency of cement plants, replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy, and capturing
and storing the CO2 that is emitted. In addition, given that a significant portion of the emissions
are an intrinsic part of the production of clinker, novel cements and alternate formulations that
reduce the need for clinker are an important area of focus.

Crushing and grinding

All except soft materials are first crushed, often in two stages, and then ground, usually in a
rotating, cylindrical ball, or tube mills containing a charge of steel grinding balls. This grinding
is done wet or dry, depending on the process in use, but for dry grinding the raw materials first
may need to be dried in cylindrical, rotary dryers.

Soft materials are broken down by vigorous stirring with water in wash mills, producing a fine
slurry, which is passed through screens to remove oversize particles.

Blending
A first approximation of the chemical composition required for a particular cement is obtained
by selective quarrying and control of the raw material fed to the crushing and grinding plant.
Finer control is obtained by drawing material from two or more batches containing raw mixes of
slightly different composition. In the dry process these mixes are stored in silos; slurry tanks are
used in the wet process. Thorough mixing of the dry materials in the silos is ensured by agitation
and vigorous circulation induced by compressed air. In the wet process the slurry tanks are
stirred by mechanical means or compressed air or both. The slurry, which contains 35 to 45
percent water, is sometimes filtered, reducing the water content to 20 to 30 percent, and the filter
cake is then fed to the kiln. This reduces the fuel consumption for burning.

Burning
The earliest kilns in which cement was burned in batches were bottle kilns, followed by chamber
kilns and then by continuous shaft kilns. The shaft kiln in a modernized form is still used in some
countries, but the dominant means of burning is the rotary kiln. These kilns—up to 200 metres
(660 feet) long and six metres in diameter in wet process plants but shorter for the dry process—
consist of a steel, cylindrical shell lined with refractory materials. They rotate slowly on an axis
that is inclined a few degrees to the horizontal. The raw material feed, introduced at the upper
end, moves slowly down the kiln to the lower, or firing, end. The fuel for firing may be
pulverized coal, oil, or natural gas injected through a pipe. The temperature at the firing end
ranges from about 1,350 to 1,550 °C (2,460 to 2,820 °F), depending on the raw materials being
burned. Some form of heat exchanger is commonly incorporated at the back end of the kiln to
increase heat transfer to the incoming raw materials and so reduce the heat lost in the waste
gases. The burned product emerges from the kiln as small nodules of clinker. These pass into
coolers, where the heat is transferred to incoming air and the product cooled. The clinker may be
immediately ground to cement or stored in stockpiles for later use.

In the semidry process the raw materials, in the form of nodules containing 10 to 15 percent
water, are fed onto a traveling chain grate before passing to the shorter rotary kiln. Hot gases
coming from the kiln are sucked through the raw nodules on the grate, preheating the nodules.

Dust emission from cement kilns can be a serious nuisance. In populated areas it is usual and
often compulsory to fit cyclone arrestors, bag-filter systems, or electrostatic dust precipitators
between the kiln exit and the chimney stack. More than 50 percent of the emissions from cement
production are intrinsically linked to the production of clinker and are a by-product of the
chemical reaction that drives the current process. There is potential to blend clinker with
 alternative materials to reduce the need for clinker itself and thus help reduce the climate impacts
of the cement-making process.

Modern cement plants are equipped with elaborate instrumentation for control of the burning
process. Raw materials in some plants are sampled automatically, and a computer calculates and
controls the raw mix composition. The largest rotary kilns have outputs exceeding 5,000 tons per
day.

Grinding
The clinker and the required amount of gypsum are ground to a fine powder in horizontal mills
similar to those used for grinding the raw materials. The material may pass straight through the
mill (open-circuit grinding), or coarser material may be separated from the ground product and
returned to the mill for further grinding (closed-circuit grinding). Sometimes a small amount of a
grinding aid is added to the feed material. For air-entraining cements (discussed in the following
section) the addition of an air-entraining agent is similarly made.
4. Briefly describe the characteristics of chemical compounds found on Portland cement (C 3S, C2S,
and C3A & C4AF) and their influence on the desired property such as rate of hydration, strength,
rate and amount of heat given off and resistance to chemical attack.
Portland cement
Chemical composition
Portland cement is made up of four main compounds: tricalcium silicate (3CaO · SiO2), dicalcium
silicate (2CaO · SiO2), tricalcium aluminate (3CaO · Al2O3), and a tetra-calcium aluminoferrite (4CaO
· Al2O3Fe2O3). In an abbreviated notation differing from the normal atomic symbols, these compounds
are designated as C3S, C2S, C3A, and C4AF, where C stands for calcium oxide (lime), S for silica, A
for alumina, and F for iron oxide. Small amounts of uncombined lime and magnesia also are present,
along with alkalies and minor amounts of other elements.

Hydration
The most important hydraulic constituents are the calcium silicates, C2S and C3S. Upon mixing with
water, the calcium silicates react with water molecules to form calcium silicate hydrate (3CaO · 2SiO2 ·
3H2O) and calcium hydroxide (Ca[OH]2). These compounds are given the shorthand notations C–S–H
(represented by the average formula C3S2H3) and CH, and the hydration reaction can be crudely
represented by the following reactions:
2C3S + 6H = C3S2H3 + 3CH
2C2S + 4H = C3S2H3 + CH
During the initial stage of hydration, the parent compounds dissolve, and the dissolution of their
chemical bonds generates a significant amount of heat. Then, for reasons that are not fully understood,
hydration comes to a stop. This quiescent, or dormant, period is extremely important in the placement of
concrete. Without a dormant period there would be no cement trucks; pouring would have to be done
immediately upon mixing.

Following the dormant period (which can last several hours), the cement begins to harden, as CH and C–
S–H are produced. This is the cementitious material that binds cement and concrete together. As
hydration proceeds, water and cement are continuously consumed. Fortunately, the C–S–H and CH
products occupy almost the same volume as the original cement and water; volume is approximately
conserved, and shrinkage is manageable.

Although the formulas above treat C–S–H as a specific stoichiometry, with the formula C3S2H3, it does
not at all form an ordered structure of uniform composition. C–S–H is actually an amorphous gel with a
highly variable stoichiometry. The ratio of C to S, for example, can range from 1:1 to 2:1, depending on
mix design and curing conditions.

Structural properties
The strength developed by portland cement depends on its composition and the fineness to which it is
ground. The C3S is mainly responsible for the strength developed in the first week of hardening and the
C2S for the subsequent increase in strength. The alumina and iron compounds that are present only in
lesser amounts make little direct contribution to strength.
Set cement and concrete can suffer deterioration from attack by some natural or artificial chemical
agents. The alumina compound is the most vulnerable to chemical attack in soils containing sulfate salts
or in seawater, while the iron compound and the two calcium silicates are more resistant. Calcium
hydroxide released during the hydration of the calcium silicates is also vulnerable to attack. Because
cement liberates heat when it hydrates, concrete placed in large masses, as in dams, can cause the
temperature inside the mass to rise as much as 40 °C (70 °F) above the outside temperature. Subsequent
cooling can be a cause of cracking. The highest heat of hydration is shown by C3A, followed in
descending order by C3S, C4AF, and C2S.

5. Describe the major types of Portland cement stated under ASTM C 150 (AASHTO M 85) with
their purpose in the construction industry.
I Normal
IA Normal, air-entraining
II Moderate sulfate resistance
IIA Moderate sulfate resistance, air-entraining
III High early strength
IIIA High early strength, air-entraining
IV Low heat of hydration
V High sulfate resistance
Portland cement is a closely controlled chemical combination of calcium, silicon,
aluminum, iron and small amounts of other compounds, to which gypsum is added
in the final grinding process to regulate the setting time of the concrete. Some of
the raw materials used to manufacture cement are limestone, shells, and chalk or
marl, combined with shale, clay, slate or blast furnace slag, silica sand, and iron
ore. Lime and silica make up approximately 85 percent of the mass (1).
The term "Portland" in Portland cement originated in 1824 when an English mason
obtained a patent for his product, which he named Portland Cement. This was
because his cement blend produced concrete that resembled the color of the
natural limestone quarried on the Isle of Portland in the English Channel.
Different types of portland cement are manufactured to meet different physical and
chemical requirements for specific purposes. The American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) Designation C 150 provides for eight types of portland cement:
TYPE I
Type I is a general purpose portland cement suitable for all uses where the special
properties of other types are not required. It is used where cement or concrete is
not subject to specific exposures, such as sulfate attack from soil or water, or to an
objectionable temperature rise due to heat generated by hydration. Its uses include
pavements and sidewalks, reinforced concrete buildings, bridges, railway
structures, tanks, reservoirs, culverts, sewers, water pipes and masonry units.
TYPE II
Type II portland cement is used where precaution against moderate sulfate attack
is important, as in drainage structures where sulfate concentrations in
groundwaters are higher than normal but not unusually severe (Table 2). Type II
cement will usually generate less heat at a slower rate than Type I. With this
moderate heat of hydration (an optional requirement), Type II cement can be used
in structures of considerable mass, such as large piers, heavy abutments, and
heavy retaining walls. Its use will reduce temperature rise -- especially important
when the concrete is placed in warm weather
TYPE III
Type III is a high-early strength portland cement that provides high strengths at an
early period, usually a week or less. It is used when forms are to be removed as
soon as possible, or when the structure must be put into service quickly. In cold
weather, its use permits a reduction in the controlled curing period. Although richer
mixtures of Type I cement can be used to gain high early strength, Type III, high-
early-strength portland cement, may provide it more satisfactorily and more
economically.
TYPE IA, IIA, IIIA
Specifications for three types of air-entraining portland cement (Types IA, IIA, and
IIIA) are given in ASTM C 150. They correspond in composition to ASTM Types I,
II,
and III, respectively, except that small quantities of air-entraining materials are
interground with the clinker during manufacture to produce minute, well-
distributed, and completely separated air bubbles. These cements produce concrete
with improved resistance to freeze-thaw action.
TYPE IV
Type IV is a low heat of hydration cement for use where the rate and amount of
heat generated must be minimized. It develops strength at a slower rate than Type
I cement. Type IV portland cement is intended for use in massive concrete
structures, such as large gravity dams, where the temperature rise resulting from
heat generated during curing is a critical factor.
 TYPE V
Type V is a sulfate-resisting cement used only in concrete exposed to severe sulfate
action -- principally where soils or groundwaters have a high sulfate content. Table
1 describes sulfate concentrations requiring the use of Type V portland cement. Low
Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) content, generally 5% or less, is required when high
sulfate resistance is needed.
6. Among the properties of Portland cement briefly describe
a. Setting time
b. Soundness
c. Heat of hydration
● A.Setting Time of portland Cement
Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can vary depending on
multiple factors, such as fineness of cement, cement-water ratio, chemical content, and
admixtures. Cement used in construction should have an initial setting time that is not too
low and a final setting time not too high. Hence, two setting times are measured:

Initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically occurs within 30-45
minutes)
Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load (occurs below 10
hours)
Again, setting time can also be an indicator of hydration rate.

Standard Tests:

AASHTO T 131 and ASTM C 191: Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat
Needle
AASHTO T 154: Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Gillmore Needles
ASTM C 266: Time of Setting of Hydraulic-Cement Paste by Gillmore Needles
● B.Soundness of portland Cement
Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening. Good quality
cement retains its volume after setting without delayed expansion, which is caused by
excessive free lime and magnesia.
Tests:

Unsoundness of cement may appear after several years, so tests for ensuring soundness
must be able to determine that potential.

Le Chatelier Test
This method, done by using Le Chatelier Apparatus, tests the expansion of cement due to
lime. Cement paste (normal consistency) is taken between glass slides and submerged in
water for 24 hours at 20+1°C. It is taken out to measure the distance between the
indicators and then returned under water, brought to boil in 25-30 mins and boiled for an
hour. After cooling the device, the distance between indicator points is measured again.
In a good quality cement, the distance should not exceed 10 mm.
Autoclave Test
Cement paste (of normal consistency) is placed in an autoclave (high-pressure steam
vessel) and slowly brought to 2.03 MPa, and then kept there for 3 hours. The change in
length of the specimen (after gradually bringing the autoclave to room temperature and
pressure) is measured and expressed in percentage. The requirement for good quality
cement is a maximum of 0.80% autoclave expansion.
Standard autoclave test: AASHTO T 107 and ASTM C 151: Autoclave Expansion of
Portland Cement.
● C.Heat of Hydration
When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called hydration.
Hydration generates heat, which can affect the quality of the cement and also be
beneficial in maintaining curing temperature during cold weather. On the other hand,
when heat generation is high, especially in large structures, it may cause undesired stress.
The heat of hydration is affected most by C3S and C3A present in cement, and also by
water-cement ratio, fineness and curing temperature. The heat of hydration of Portland
cement is calculated by determining the difference between the dry and the partially
hydrated cement (obtained by comparing these at 7th and 28th days).

Standard Test:
ASTM C 186: Heat of Hydration of Hydraulic Cement