III.

CEMENT,
AGGREGATES and
CONCRETE
PART 1 – CEMENT
PART 2 – AGGREGATES
PART 3 – CONCRETE
PART 1 - CEMENT
What is Cement?
The word "cement" traces to
the Romans, who used the term opus
caementicium to
describe masonry resembling
modern concrete that was made from
crushed rock with burnt lime as binder.

The volcanic ash and

pulverized brick additives that were
added to the burnt lime to obtain a
hydraulic binder were later referred to
as cementum, cimentum, cäment,
and cement.
What is Cement?
Cements are materials that exhibit
characteristic properties of setting and
hardening when mixed to a paste with
water. This makes them join rigid masses
into coherent structures. It is powdery
bonding material having adhesive and
cohesive properties.

Chemically it is a finely ground mixture of

calcium silicates and aluminates which set
to a hard mass when treated with water.
These are called as Hydraulic Cements
(Portland Cement) and those setting in air
are Non Hydraulic cements (Ordinary
Lime).
What is Cement?
First developed by the Romans by mixing slaked
lime with pozzolana (volcanic ash) which hardened
under water. With the fall of the Roman Empire the
art of cement-making was lost and for several
centuries.

In 1756, Smeaton, an Englishman, rediscovered

hydraulic cement but it was not until 1824 that
Aspdin, an English bricklayer and mason, invented
and patented Portland cement.

Today, the word “cement” generally refers to

Portland cement which is the principal type of
cement in use.
CEMENT
Portland cement is obtained by finely
pulverizing clinker produced by calcining
a proportioned mixture of argillaceous
(silica, alumina) and calcareous (lime)
materials with iron oxide and small
amounts of other ingredients.

Types:
• slow-setting cement
• quick-setting high early strength cement
• sulfate-resisting cement for applications where
alkaline water and soils occur
• white cement (or stainless cement which is free of
iron impurities).
 CLASSIFICATION OF CEMENT

Natural Cement: Obtained by calcinating and

pulverizing natural cement rock of argillaceous and clay
with limestone. It does not have sufficient strength and is
cheap and quick setting & have hydraulic properties.

Pozzolana Cement: Volcanic ash containing silicates of

calcium, iron and aluminum when mixed with lime and
heated produces this cement.

Slag Cement: Mixture of blast furnace slag (Ca and Al

Silicates) and hydrated lime. Sometimes accelerators
like clay, salt, caustic soda are added to hasten
hardening process.

Portland Cement: It consists of compounds of lime, silica,

alumina and iron. When mixed with water it forms a
paste which binds the rock, sand and gravel to form
concrete.
 MANUFACTURING OF PORTLAND CEMENT
Crushing

Mixing (Wet Process)

Mixing (Dry Process)

Grinding (Ball Mill and Tube Mill)

Storage of Ground Materials

Burning
•Drying Zone
•Calcination Zone
•Clinkering Zone

Grinding
•Retarder
•Dispersing Agent
•Water Proofing

Packaging
CRUSHING

This is the first step in the manufacture

of Portland Cement.

Jaw crushers of various sizes are
employed for the crushing purpose.

Raw materials are crushed by crushers
till the size of the raw material reduces
to ¾ of an inch.

It is than send for either Wet process or
Dry process. Wet process is universally
employed.
 MIXING PROCESS
Calcareous materials are crushed, powdered and stored in bins.

Wet Argillaceous materials is mixed with water and washed. This removes any adhering organic impurities.

process Powdered Calcareous and Washed Argillaceous materials are mixed in proper proportions to get a
slurry.

Chemical composition is analyzed and corrected if necessary by addition of the deficient materials.

This slurry is then fed into the rotary kiln.

Hard raw materials like cement rock or blast furnace slag are first crushed to 50mm pieces in ball mill,
Dry then dried and stored.

process Crushing is done by gyratory crushers and drying is done by rotary driers.

Separate powdered ingredients are mixed in required proportions to get the raw mix which is then fed
to rotary kilns.
STORAGE OF GROUND MATERIALS

The ground materials containing 30 – 40% of water is

stored in separate tanks equipped with agitators.

This step is followed by process of burning.

BURNING

Slurry is burnt in rotary klin where actual chemical changes takes place.

Klin is long steel cylinder 30-40 meter in length, 2-4 meter in diameter,
lined by refractory bricks. It is inclined at gradient of 0.5-0.75 inch and
can be rotated at the desired speed.

The material is introduced in the klin from the upper end as the klin
rotates material passes slowly towards the lower end.

Klin is heated by burning pulverized coal or oil and temperature is
maintained at about 1400-1500°C. At clinkering temperature actual
chemical reactions takes place.
 GRINDING
Grinding can be done in two stages

• Ball Mill

– Consists of cast iron drum containing iron

and steel balls of different sizes. The
principle used in ball mill s impact and
shear produced by large no. of tumbling
and rolling balls.

• Tube Mill

– Ball mill grinding is followed by tube mill

grinding. Tube mill is conical at the
discharge end with separate inlet and
outlet.
– Slower is the feeding speed finer is the
product coming out of the tube mill.
GRINDING

Clinkers are finally grinded in ball mill and tube mill to a

fine powder. Additives added are as follows.

Retarder:
Gypsum or Plaster of Paris acts as retarder to prevent
quick setting. After initial setting gypsum retards the
dissolution of tricalcium aluminate by forming tricalcium
sulphoaluminate.

Dispersing Agent:
Sodium salts and polymers of condensed napthlene or
sulphonic acid are added to prevent the formation of
lumps and cakes in the cement.
Water proofing agents are also added.
Packaging

The ground powder is packed by

automatic machines in a bag.

This is then dispatched to the markets

where it is sold.
Characteristics of Cement

When water is added to

initiate dry mixtures of
cement and sand, hydration The proportion of cement A richer mix than 1:3
of cement starts and it will and sand will decide the proportion is prone to
binds sand particles as well strength of mortar. shrinkage.
as the surrounding surfaces of
masonry and concrete.

Solid surface are provided by A leaner mix is not able of

well proportioned mortar. closing the voids in sand.
Common Applications of Cement
Building (floors, beams, columns, roofing, piles, bricks, mortar,
panels, plaster).

Transport (roads, pathways, crossings, bridges, sleepers,

viaducts, tunnels, stabilization, runways, parking).

Water (pipes, culverts, kerbing, drains, canals, weirs, dams,

tanks, pools).

Civil (piers, docks, retaining walls, silos, warehousing, poles,

pylons, fencing).

Agriculture (buildings, processing, housing, feedlots, irrigation).

Advantages and Disadvantages of Cement
PART 2 - AGGREGATES
INTRODUCTION
Aggregate are the important
constituent in concrete. Aggregate
are granular material, derived from
the most part from the natural rocks,
crushed stones, or natural gravels
and sands.

Aggregate generally occupy about

70% to 80% of the volume of
concrete and can therefore be
expected to have an important
influence on it properties.
CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATE
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SIZE:

Coarse aggregate:
• Aggregate which retained on the No.4 (4.75mm)
sieve. The function of the coarse aggregate is to
act as the main load-bearing component of the
concrete.

Fine aggregate:
• Aggregate passing No.4(4.75mm) sieve and
predominately retained on the No.200 (75µ) sieve.
The fine aggregate serve the purpose of filling all
the open space in between the coarse particles.
CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATE
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SOURCE:

Natural aggregates:
• This kind of aggregate is taken from natural
deposits without changing their nature during
the process production such as crushing and
grinding.

Manufactured (synthetics) aggregates:

• This is a kind of man-made materials produced
as a main product or an industrial by-product.
Some example are blast furnace slag, air cooled
slag and broken bricks. Synthetics aggregates
are produced by thermally processed materials
such as expanded clay and shale used for
making light weight concrete.
CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATE
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON UNIT
WEIGHT
• Aggregates are classified as Light-weight,
Heavy-weight and Normal-weight aggregate
depending on weight and specific gravity.
AGGREGAT SPECIFIC UNIT WEIGHT BULK EXAMPLE
E GRAVITY (kN/m3) DENSITY
(kN/m3)
normal- 2.5-2.7 23-26 15.20-16.80 sand
weight
heavy- 2.8-2.9 25-29 >20.80 Scrap iron
weight
light-weight 12 <11.20 dolomite
CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATE 26

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SHAPE

• The shape of aggregates is an important characteristic,
since it affect the workability of concrete.

CLASSIFICATION EXAMPLE

Rounded River or seashore gravels

Partly rounded Pit sands & Gravels

Angular Crushed Rocks

Flaky Laminated rocks

 FLAT ELONGATED

ANGULAR ROUND
GOOD QUALITYIES OF AN IDEAL AGGREGATE:
•An ideal aggregate used for the manufacturing of concrete and mortar, should
meet the following requirements.

It should consist of natural

stones, gravels and sand or It should be hard, strong
in various combinations of and durable.
these materials.

It should be dense, clear It should be free from

and free from any coating. injurious vegetable matters.

It should not contain any

It should not contain flaky
material liable to attack
(angular) and elongated
steel reinforcement in case
pieces.
of reinforced concrete.
AGGREGATES
Fine aggregates
•(aggregates smaller than
6mm (¼”) in size) consist of
sand, stone screenings or
other inert materials of
similar characteristics.
•Specs: 80 to 95% shall pass
a No. 4 wire cloth sieve
and not more than 30%
nor less than 10% shall pass
a No. 50 sieve.
AGGREGATES
Coarse aggregates
• (aggregate larger than ¼” in size) consists of
crushed stones, gravel or other inert
materials of similar characteristics.
• Coarse aggregates should be well graded in
size to a size which will readily pass
between all reinforcing bars and between
reinforcement and forms but not exceed
25mm (1”) in size for reinforced beams, floor
slabs, & thin walls.
• They may range up to 50mm (2”) for less
highly reinforced parts of the structures such
as footings, thick walls, and massive work.
AGGREGATES
Special aggregates
• Special aggregates, such as
cinders, blast furnace slag,
expanded shale or clay,
perlite, vermiculite, and
sawdust, may produce:
• lightweight, nailable
concrete
• thermal insulating concrete.
PART 3 - CONCRETE
Concrete is:
a proportioned mixture of cement,
aggregate and water.

a plastic mass which can be cast, molded

or formed into predetermined size or
shape

upon hydration, becomes stone-like in

strength, hardness and durability. The
hardening of concrete is called setting.

when mixed with water and a fine

aggregate of less than 6mm (¼“) is known
as mortar, stucco or cement plaster.
Concrete is:
when mixed with water, fine
aggregate and a large
aggregate of more than 6mm
(¼”) in size produces concrete.

when strengthened by
embedded steel, is called
reinforced concrete.

when without reinforcement, is

called plain or mass concrete.
Composition of Concrete

Cement Aggregates Water

CONCRETE
CEMENT
• CEMENT in reinforced-
concrete construction
should be high-grade
Portland cement
conforming to the
“Standard Specifications
and Test for Portland
Cement” of the American
Society for Testing Materials
• Each bag of cement is
equivalent to approximately
1 cu. ft. and weighs 94 lbs.
AGGREGATES
• AGGRERGATES are inert
mineral fillers used with
cement and water in
making concrete, should be
particles that are durable
strong, clean, hard and
uncoated, and which are
free from injurious amount of
dusts, lumps, soft and flaky
particles, shale, alkali,
organic matter loam or
other deleterious
substances.
• TYPES:
• COARSE
• FINE
• SPECIAL AGGREGATES
WATER
• WATER should be free from oil,
acid, alkali, vegetable matter,
or other deleterious
substances
• It should be reasonably clear
and clean. The use of sea or
brackish water is not allowed.
• Water combines with the
cement to form a paste which
coats and surrounds the inert
particles of aggregates.
• Upon hardening, it binds the
entire mass together.
• The strength of the mixture
therefore depends directly
upon the strength of the
paste. If there be an excess of
water the paste becomes thin
and weak and its holding
power is reduced.
ADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE
Economical

Durable

Fire resistant

Energy efficient

On-site fabrication
FEATURES OF CONCRETE
Strength and Durability

Versatility

Low maintenance

Affordability

Fire-resistance

Thermal mass

Locally produced and used

Compactness
FEATURES OF CONCRETE
Strength and Durability
• Used in the majority of
buildings, bridges, tunnels
and dams for its strength
• Not weakened by moisture
or mould
• Concrete structures can
withstand natural disasters
such as earthquakes and
hurricanes Roman buildings
over 1,500 years old such as
the Coliseum are living
examples of the strength
and durability of concrete
Versatility
• Concrete is used in
buildings, bridges, dams,
tunnels, sewerage systems
pavements, runways and
even roads
• Low maintenance
• Concrete, being , compact
and non-porous, does not
attract mold or lose its key
properties over time
FEATURES OF CONCRETE
Affordability Versatility Compactness

• Compared to • Being naturally • Concrete must

other fire-resistant be sufficiently
comparable concrete forms dense
building a highly • Compacted
materials, effective barrier • Minimum
concrete is less to fire spread shrinkage
costly to
• Economical for
produce and
desired strength
remains
extremely • Sophisticated
affordable appearance
FEATURES OF CONCRETE
Affordability Versatility

• Concrete walls and • Very little cement

floors slow the and concrete is
passage of heat traded and
moving through, transported
reducing internationally
temperature swings • This saves
• This reduces energy significantly on
needs from heating transport.
or air-conditioning.
QUALITIES OF GOOD CONCRETE

STRONG

DURABLE

UNIFORM QUALITY

THROROUGHLY SOUND
CONDITIONS OF GOOD CONCRETE
careful selection of materials

correct proportioning

thorough mixing

careful transporting and placing

proper curing or protection of the

concrete after it is placed
PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE
1 foot

Proportioning concrete by
the arbitrary selection of the
proportions is the oldest, the
most commonly used, the
most convenient and the
least scientific method. In this

1 foot
method, the aggregates are
measured by loose volume,
that is, its volume as it is
thrown into a measuring box. 1 foot

One sack of cement is taken as 1 cu. ft.

Enough water is used to give the desired consistency.
PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE
Common mixes expressed in proportions by volumes of
cement to fine aggregate to coarse aggregate are as follows:

CONCRETE PROPORTIONS
Class “AA” 1 : 1.5 : 3 For concrete under water, retaining walls

Class “A” 1: 2 :4 For suspended slabs, beams, columns, arches,

stairs, walls of 100mm (4”) thickness

Class “B” 1 : 2.5 : 5 For walls thicker than 100mm (4”), footings,
steps, reinforced concrete slabs on fill.

Class “C” 1: 3 :6 For concrete plant boxes, and any non-critical

concrete structures.

Class “D” 1 : 3.5 : 7 For mass concrete works.

Procedure for Preparing Concrete.
After procuring the materials and
deciding the proportion (mix-
design) following are two
methods of mixing:-

Hand mixing

Machine mixing
MIXING OF CONCRETE - HAND

hand-mixing must be done on a water-

tight platform.

cement and fine aggregate shall first be

mixed dry until the whole is a uniform
color.

water and coarse aggregate shall then be

added and the entire mass turned at least
three times, or until a homogeneous
mixture of the required consistency is
obtained.
MIXING OF CONCRETE - HAND
In hand mixing similar to mortar cement : fine
aggregates : Coarse aggregates. Are taken in desired
quantity on water tight clean platform and dry mixed
thoroughly 3 times.

Then water is added as per the water cement ratio and

thoroughly mixed by spade.

It is suitable for only small quantities and where quality

can be monitored on site.

It has to be used within 30 minutes of it’s preparation.

 Advantages and
Disadvantages of Hand Mixing
Advantages
• Process is done on site hence
no time constraint can be
prepared as per the site
requirements.
• No power is required
• No heavy machinery is required
• Process is less noisy.
• Quality can be monitored on
site always recommended to
use 10% more cement then
specified.
Disadvantages
• Cannot be adopted for large
quantity of concrete.
• Since the mixing is done by
hand proper supervision on
mixing is also required
• The work area gets untidy and
cleaning work is increased.
• Process consumes more time.
MIXING OF CONCRETE - MACHINE
All the materials are added into the mechanical
mixer and rotated for certain time(1- 4 mins). The
mixture is then taken out of the drum and
transported.

It is to be noted that if water is added 1st in the

mixer it ensures evenly distribution of water in the
mix.

The speed and time of mixing is

crucial(important) and has to be supervised
because it affects the quality and strength of
concrete.

The concrete discharged from mixer should also

be consumed within 30 mins.
MIXING OF CONCRETE - MACHINE
Batch mixers
•into which sufficient
materials are placed at
one time to make a
convenient size batch of
concrete, the whole
amount being
discharged in one mass
after it is mixed.
MIXING OF CONCRETE - MACHINE

Continuous mixers
•into which the
materials are fed
constantly and from
which the concrete is
discharged in a
steady stream.
MIXING OF CONCRETE
Concrete mixers may
also be classified as:
• drum mixers
• trough mixers
• gravity mixers, and
• pneumatic mixers.

The drum mixers are the

most common type.
Advantages and Disadvantages of
machine mixing of concrete.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. The quality of concrete is good
Requires maintenance, cleaning is
and fast. difficult, blades need to be
checked for any damage.
2. Since mixing is done in machine;
area is less untidy and cleaning is
Requires power and is noisy.
easy.

Skilled operator is required for
3. Since machine is operation.
movable(potable) concrete can
be produced at various location
on site reducing the
transportation cost.
Transportation of Concrete
The concrete ready to use should be placed
and finished within 30 min of its preparation;
hence transportation of concrete is also an
important activity.

The type of equipment for transportation of

concrete depends on the nature of work,
height above/below ground level and
distance between point of preparation and
placing of concrete.

For ordinary work human ladder is formed

and concrete is conveyed(passed on) in
pans hand to hand. For important works
various mechanical devices such as
dumpers, trucks, pumps, hoist, etc.
Precautions to be taken while
transportation of concrete.

Concrete should be transferred such that there is no segregation of
aggregates.

Under no circumstances water should be added to concrete during
its passage from mixer to formwork.

Spillage and wastage should be minimum.

It should be easily accessible at both the points.
Pouring of Concrete

After transporting the concrete another activity is placing of
concrete. Concrete needs to be placed with great care to avoid
segregation and to achieve proper compaction.

It is advisable to deposit small small quantity of concrete at various
location rather than deposit huge chunk at one location.
Precautions to be taken while
placing of Concrete.
1. Formwork should be cleaned and well watered if applicable
shuttering oil should be applied before laying reinforcement to
avoid its contact with steel.
2. Concrete to be deposited as near as possible to its final position.
3. Concrete to be deposited from a maximum height of 1.5m.
4. The mix should be hard enough or else it will start bleeding form the
formwork.
5. Concrete should be laid in layers ranging from 150 mm to 500 mm
thick.
CURING OF CONCRETE

Concrete must be allowed to “cure” or harden after it is placed.

Hardening is a rather slow process in which the cement and water unite to
form compounds that give strength and durability to the concrete. It continues
as long as the temperatures are favorable and moisture is present.

Three main factors that affect hardening are:

• age or time
• temperature, and
• moisture
CURING OF CONCRETE
• In order that the hardening may proceed
favorably, the fresh concrete, for about 7 days
after placing, should be protected from,
excessive vibration, loads, extreme heat or
cold, too rapid drying, and contact with
impurities which may interfere with the
chemical action.

• The strength of the concrete increases with

age when the curing conditions remains
favorable.
CURING OF CONCRETE

The increase in strength is

rapid during the early
ages and continues more
slowly as time goes on.
The compressive strength
reaches about 60% of its
own maximum value at
an age of 28 days and
about 80% at an age of 3
months.
CURING OF CONCRETE
Curing consists primarily in keeping the concrete from drying out too rapidly. This may be done
by:

Covering the concrete. Floors shall be covered with paper sacking

wetted down at the edges or with burlap, sand or earth that is kept
moist, after the concrete is hard enough to walk on.

Removal of forms at prescribed time. Forms shall not be removed until

after the time specified.

Sprinkling with water. Beams, columns and walls are sprinkled or sprayed
with water as soon as the forms are removed.

Using curing compounds (see ADMIXTURES).

CURING OF CONCRETE
Parts of Structure
FOOTINGS a. Massive footings
b. Cantilever footings
c. Slab footings
WALLS a. Massive walls, 30
AND cms. thick or more
PLASTERS
CURING PERIOD or TIME REQUIRED
FOR THE REMOVAL OF FORMS
a. 1 day (24 hours)
b. 5 days (120 hours)
c. 5 days (120 hours)
a. Up to 2 M. high: 1 day (24 hours). Add 1 day
(24 hours) for every additional meter or
fraction thereof.

b. Thin walls less b. Up to 2 M. high: 2 days (48 hours. Add 1-1/2

than 30 cms. Thick days (36 hours) for every additional meter or
fraction thereof

c. Cantilever walls, c. Without loads, same as (b).

buttresses,
counter forts,
diaphragms.
COLUMNS a. Ratio of height to a. 2 days (48 hours)
least diameter up
to 4
b. Add to the above number 1 day (24 hours)
b. Ratio of height to for every additional meter or height or
least diameter fraction there of but not more than 28 days
from 4 to 15. (672 hours).
CURING OF CONCRETE
Parts of Structure CURING PERIOD or TIME REQUIRED
FOR THE REMOVAL OF FORMS
SLABS a. 3 to 7 ft. spans a. 3 ft. span, 5 days (120 hours). Add ½ day (12
hours) for every additional 1 ft. span or
fraction thereof.

b. Over 7 ft. span b. 7 ft. span, 7 days (168 hours). Add 1 day (24
hours) for every additional 1 ft. span or
fraction thereof but not more than 28 days
(672 hours).
BEAMS a. Sides a. 3 days
AND b. Bottoms b. Up to 14 ft., 14 days (336 hours). Add 1 day
GIRDERS for every 1 ft. additional span or fraction
thereof but not more than 28 days (672
hours).
ARCHES a. Spandrel walls a. 7 days (168 hours).
b. Spandrel arches b. 14 days (336 hours)
c. Main arches c. 21 days (504 hours)
BALUSTRADES a. Steel & side forms a. 1 day (24 hours)
, COPINGS,ETC.
R.C. PILES and a. Sides. a. 3 days (72 hours)
R.C. POSTS b. Bottom b. 14 days (336 hours)
CURING OF CONCRETE
CURING OF CONCRETE
CURING OF CONCRETE
CURING OF CONCRETE
CURING OF CONCRETE
Finishing of concrete surface

If proper compaction is done on concrete

and proper curing then there is very less
chances of improper finish.

To increase the finish of surface concrete is

prepared by adding more fines to it for
e.g. slag, fly ash, porcelain etc..

It also increases the workability of

concrete.

Proper tamping on shuttering while laying

of concrete and compaction also helps in
achieving well finished surface.
PART 4 – APPLICATIONS OF
CONCRETE
APPLICATIONS OF CONCRETE
CONSTRUCTION
APPLICATIONS OF CONCRETE
PRE-CAST CONSTRUCTION
APPLICATIONS OF CONCRETE
PRE-CAST FINISHING
APPLICATIONS OF CONCRETE
GLASS REINFORCED CONCRETE
APPLICATIONS OF CONCRETE
MICROCONCRETE
APPLICATIONS OF CONCRETE
LACQUERED CEMENT
FIBER CEMENT BOARD
FIN