Unit 2 – MATERIALS AND

THEIR PROPERTIES

Structural System and Design - IV

 Contents
• Types of Cement and its manufacturing
• Different Types of Concrete (PCC & RCC)
• Structural Members in Concrete Structures
• Types of Concrete Structures
• Present trends in RCC design
• Concepts of Working Stress Method (WSD), Ultimate Load Method (ULM)
and Limit State Method (LSM) of RCC design
• Concept of Neutral Axis, Compression Zone, Tension Zone, Lever Arm and
Moment of Resistance of an RCC design
• Basic assumptions in RCC Design
 Cement
• Cement is a fine, soft, powdery-type substance.
• It is a fine mineral powder manufactured with very precise processes. Mixed
with water, this powder transforms into a paste that binds and hardens when
submerged in water. Because the composition and fineness of the powder may
vary, cement has different properties depending upon its makeup.
• Cement is mainly used as a binder in concrete, which is a basic material for all
types of construction, including housing, roads, schools, hospitals, dams and
ports.
• It is made from a mixture of elements that are found in natural materials such as
limestone, clay, sand and/or shale.
 Cement
• When cement is mixed with water, it can bind sand and aggregates into a hard,
solid mass called concrete.
• In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, a British stone mason, heated a mixture of finely
ground limestone and clay in his kitchen stove and ground the mixture into a
powder to create a hydraulic cement – one that hardens with the addition of
water.
• Four essential elements are needed to make cement. They are Calcium, Silicon,
Aluminium and Iron
• Calcium (which is the main ingredient) can be obtained from limestone,
whereas silicon can be obtained from sand
• Aluminium and iron can be extracted from bauxite and iron ore, and only small
amounts are needed.
 Chemical Composition of Cement
• The raw materials used for the manufacture of cement consist mainly of lime,
silica, alumina and iron oxide.
• These oxides interact with one another in the kiln at high temperature to form
more complex compounds.
• The relative proportions of these oxide compositions are responsible for
influencing the various properties of cement, in addition to rate of cooling and
fineness of grinding.
 Portland Cement
• Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use around the
world, used as a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, plaster, and most non-
speciality grout.
 Difference between
Cement Portland Cement
• A cement is a binder, a substance • Portland cement is the most
used in construction that sets, common type of cement in general
hardens and adheres to other used around the world as a basic
materials, binding them together. ingredient of concrete and mortar.
Cement is seldom used solely, but
• It is a fine powder, produced by
is used to bind sand and gravel
heating limestone and clay minerals
(aggregate) together. Cement is
in a kiln to form clinker, grinding
used with fine aggregate to produce
the clinker, and adding small
mortar for masonry, or with sand
amounts of other materials.
and gravel aggregates to produce
concrete.
Manufacturing Process of Portland Cement
• Step 1. Mixing of Raw Materials
• The major raw materials used in the manufacture of cement are Calcium,
Silicon, Iron and Aluminium. These minerals are used in different form as per
the availability of the minerals.
Manufacturing Process of Portland Cement
There are 2-types of processes that can be used to Manufacture Portland Cement.
• Wet Process
• Dry Process

DRY PROCESS
• The both calcareous and argillaceous raw materials are firstly crushed in the
gyratory crushes to get 2-5 cm size pieces separately. The crushed materials are
again grinded to get fine particles into ball or tube mill.
• Each finely grinded material is stored in hopper after screening. Now these
powdered minerals are mixed in required proportion to get dry raw mix which
is then stored in silos and kept ready to be sent into rotary kiln. Now the raw
materials are mixed in specific proportions so that the average composition of
the final product is maintained properly.
Manufacturing Process of Portland Cement
Manufacturing Process of Portland Cement
WET PROCESS
• The raw materials are firstly crushed and made into powdered form and stored
in silos. The clay is then washed in washing mills to remove adhering organic
matters found in clay.
• The powdered limestone and water washed clay are sent to flow in the
channels and transfer to grinding mills where they are completely mixed and
the paste is formed, i.e. known as slurry.
• The grinding process can be done in balls or tube mill or even both. Then the
slurry is led into collecting basin where composition can be adjusted. The
slurry contains around 38-40% water that is stored in storage tanks and kept
ready for the rotary kiln.
Manufacturing Process of Portland Cement
Manufacturing Process of Portland Cement
Criteria Dry Process Wet Process

Hardness of raw Quite hard Any type of raw

material material
Fuel consumption Low High

Time of process Lesser Higher

Quality Inferior quality Superior quality

Cost of production High Low

Overall cost Costly Cheaper

Physical state Raw mix (solid) Slurry (liquid)

Manufacturing Process of Portland Cement
Step 2. Grinding of Clinkers
• The cooled clinkers are received from the cooling pans and sent into mills. The
clinkers are grinded finely into powder in ball mill or tube mill. Powdered
gypsum is added around 2-3% as retarding agent during final grinding. The
final obtained product is cement that does not settle quickly when comes in
contact with water.
• After the initial setting time of the cement, the cement becomes stiff and the
gypsum retards the dissolution of tri-calcium aluminates by forming tricalcium
sulfoaluminate which is insoluble and prevents too early further reactions of
setting and hardening.
Step 3. Storage and Packaging
• The grinded cement is stored in silos, from which it is marketed either in
container load or 50kg bags.
Manufacturing Process of Cement
 Concrete
• Reinforced cement concrete is a composite material made up of cement
concrete and reinforcement in which the concrete resists compression with
reinforcement resisting the tension and shear.
• It is the most versatile building material available and is extensively used in the
construction industry ranging from small structural elements such as beams and
columns to massive structures like dams and bridges.
• For a large range of applications, it is sufficient to consider the uni-axial
response of either material.
 Types of Concrete Structures
• Various kinds of buildings • Bunkers and silos
• Stadium • Chimneys
• Auditorium • Communication towers
• Pavements • Tunnels
• Bridges
• Piers
• Breakwaters
• Berthing structures
• Dams
• Waterways
• Pipes
• Water tanks
• Cooling towers
Concept of Neutral Axis, Compression Zone, Tension
Zone, Lever Arm and Moment of Resistance
Concept of Neutral Axis, Compression Zone, Tension
Zone, Lever Arm and Moment of Resistance
Concept of Neutral Axis, Compression Zone, Tension
Zone, Lever Arm and Moment of Resistance
Concept of Neutral Axis, Compression Zone, Tension
Zone, Lever Arm and Moment of Resistance
• Overall Depth: The normal distance from the top edge of the beam to
the bottom edge of the beam is called overall depth. It is denoted by ‘D’.
• Effective Depth: The normal distance from the top edge of beam to the
centre of tensile reinforcement is called effective depth. It is denoted by
‘d’.
• Tension Zone: The zone which has tensile stresses in it and being
provided with reinforcement to absorb those tensile stresses is called
Tension zone.
• Compression Zone: The zone which has compressive stresses in it is
called Compression zone.
Concept of Neutral Axis, Compression Zone, Tension
Zone, Lever Arm and Moment of Resistance
• Neutral Axis: The layer/lamina where no stress exist is known as
neutral axis. It divides the beam section into two zones, compression
zone above the neutral axis and tension zone below the neutral axis.
• Depth of neutral axis: The normal distance between the top edge of the
beam and neutral axis is called depth of neutral axis is called depth of
neutral axis. It is denoted by ‘n’.
• Lever Arm: The distance between the resultant compressive force (C)
and tensile force (T) is known as lever arm. It is denoted by ‘z’. The
total compressive force (C) in concrete act at the C.G. of compressive
stress diagram i.e. n/3 from the compression edge. The total tensile force
(T) acts at C.G. of the reinforcement.
• Lever Arm = d – n/3
Linear elastic stress distribution
 Different types of Concrete
Plain Cement Concrete (PCC)
• Plain Cement Concrete mainly consists of solid mass made of
sand, gravel, cement and water devoid of any reinforcement.
• Concrete is remarkably strong in compression, but weak in
tension.
• Hence the use of PCC as a structural material is limited to
situations where significant tensile stresses and strains do not
develop. For example, hollow (or solid) block wall construction,
small pedestals and mass concrete applications.
 Different types of Concrete
Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)
• It is concrete with steel bars embedded in it. The idea of
reinforcing concrete with steel has resulted in a new composite
material, having the potential of resisting significant tensile
stresses.
• The steel bars (embedded in the tension zone of the concrete)
compensate for the concrete’s incapacity for tensile resistance,
effectively taking up all the tension, without separating from the
concrete.
• The bond between steel and concrete ensures starin compatibility,
i.e. strain at any point in the steel is equal to that in the adjoining
concrete.
• Moreover, the reinforcing steel imparts ductility to a material that
is otherwise brittle.
Different types of Concrete
 Structural Members in Concrete Structures
• Beam
• Column
• Floor
• Foundation
• Slab
• Staircase
 Present Trends in RCC Design
• The aim of structural design is to design a structure so that it fulfills its
intended purpose during its intended lifetime with adequate safety (in
terms of strength, stability and structural integrity), adequate
serviceability (in terms of stiffness, durability etc.) and economy.
Safety
• It implies that likelihood of (partial or total) collapse of the structure is
acceptably low not only under the normal expected loads (service loads),
but also under abnormal but probable overloads (such as due to
earthquake or extreme wind).
• Collapse may occur due to various possibilities such as exceeding the
load−bearing capacity, overturning, sliding, buckling, fatigue fracture,
etc.
• Another related aspect of safety is structural integrity. The objective here
is to minimise the likelihood of progressive collapse.
 Present Trends in RCC Design
Serviceability
• It implies satisfactory performance of the structure under service loads,
without discomfort to the user due to excessive deflection, cracking,
vibration, etc.
• Other considerations that come under the purview of serviceability are
durability, impermeability, acoustic and thermal insulation, etc.
• A design that adequately satisfies the ‘safety’ requirement need not
necessarily satisfy the ‘serviceability’ requirement.
• For example, a thin reinforced concrete slab can be made safe against
collapse (by suitable reinforcement); but if it is too thin, it is likely to
result in excessive deflections, crack-widths and permeability (leakage),
and the exposed steel becomes vulnerable to corrosion (thereby affecting
durability).
 Present Trends in RCC Design
Economy
• Increasing the design margins of safety can enhance safety and
serviceability; but this increases the cost of the structure.
• In considering overall economy, the increased cost associated with
increased safety margins should be weighed against the potential losses
that could result from any damage.
 Definitions
Characteristic Strength
• ‘‘Characteristic strength is defined as the strength of material below
which not more than 5 percent of the test results are expected to fall’’ .
Modulus of Elasticity
• Concrete is not really an elastic material, i.e., it does not fully recover its
original dimensions upon unloading.
• It is not only non-elastic; it is also non-linear (i.e., the stress-strain curve
is nonlinear). Hence, the conventional ‘elastic constants’ (modulus of
elasticity and Poisson’s ratio) are not strictly applicable to a material like
concrete.
• The Young’s modulus of elasticity is a constant, defined as the ratio,
within the linear elastic range, of axial stress to axial strain, under
uniaxial loading.
 Definitions
• In the case of concrete under uniaxial compression, it has some
validity in the very initial portion of the stress-strain curve, which is
practically linear; that is, when the loading is of low intensity, and of
very short duration.
Poisson’s Ratio
• This is another elastic constant, defined as the ratio of the lateral strain
to the longitudinal strain, under uniform axial stress.
• When a concrete prism is subjected to a uniaxial compression test, the
longitudinal compressive strains are accompanied by lateral tensile
strains.
• The prism as a whole also undergoes a volume change, which can be
measured in terms of volumetric strain.
 Definitions
Modulus of Rupture
• In the flexure test most commonly employed, a ‘standard’ plain concrete
beam of a square or rectangular cross-section is simply supported and
subjected to third-points loading until failure.
• Assuming a linear stress distribution across the cross-section, the
theoretical maximum tensile stress reached in the extreme fibre is
termed the modulus of rupture (fcr).
• It is obtained by applying the flexure formula: fcr = M/Z where M is the
bending moment causing failure, and Z is the section modulus.
Modular ratio
• It is defined as the ratio of elastic modulus of steel to that of concrete.
 Definitions
Grade of Concrete
• The desired properties of concrete are its compressive strength, tensile
strength, shear strength, bond strength, density, impermeability,
durability, etc.
• Among these, the property that can be easily tested, and is perhaps the
most valuable (from the viewpoint of structural design) is the
compressive strength. This is measured by standard tests on concrete
cube (or cylinder) specimens.
• The quality or grade of concrete is designated in terms of a number,
which denotes its characteristic compressive strength (of 150 mm cubes
at 28-days), expressed in MPa (or, equivalently, N/mm2 ). The number
is usually preceded by the letter ‘M’, which refers to ‘mix’.
• Thus, for example, M 20 grade concrete denotes a concrete whose mix is
so designed as to generate a characteristic strength of 20 Mpa.
 Design Philosophies
Working Stress Method (WSM)
• This was the traditional method of design not only for reinforced
concrete, but also for structural steel and timber design.
• The method basically assumes that the structural material behaves in a
linear elastic manner, and that adequate safety can be ensured by
suitably restricting the stresses in the material induced by the expected
‘working loads’ (service loads) on the structure.
• As the specified permissible (‘allowable’) stresses are kept well below
the material strength (i.e., in the initial phase of the stress-strain curve),
the assumption of linear elastic behaviour is considered justifiable.
• The ratio of the strength of the material to the permissible stress is often
referred to as the factor of safety.
 Design Philosophies
Working Stress Method (WSM)
• In order to apply such methods to a composite material like reinforced
concrete, the strain in the reinforcing steel is assumed to be equal to that
in the adjoining concrete to which it is bonded.
• Furthermore, as the stresses in concrete and steel are assumed to be
linearly related to their respective strains, it follows that the stress in steel
is linearly related to that in the adjoining concrete by a constant factor
(called the modular ratio), defined as the ratio of the modulus of elasticity
of steel to that of concrete.
• However, the main assumption of linear elastic behaviour and the tacit
assumption that the stresses under working loads can be kept within the
‘permissible stresses’ are not found to be realistic.
• Many factors are responsible for this — such as the longterm effects of
creep and shrinkage, the effects of stress concentrations, and other
secondary effects. All such effects result in significant local increases in
and redistribution of the calculated stresses.
 Design Philosophies
Working Stress Method (WSM)
• Moreover, WSM does not provide a realistic measure of the actual factor
of safety underlying a design.
• WSM also fails to discriminate between different types of loads that act
simultaneously, but have different degrees of uncertainty.
• This can, at times, result in very unconservative designs, particularly
when two different loads (say, dead loads and wind loads) have
counteracting effects.
• Nevertheless, in defence against these and other shortcomings levelled
against WSM, it may be stated that most structures designed in
accordance with WSM have been generally performing satisfactorily for
many years.
 Design Philosophies
Working Stress Method (WSM)
• The design usually results in relatively large sections of structural
members (compared to Ultimate and Limit State Method), thereby
resulting in better serviceability performance (less deflections, crack-
widths, etc.) under the usual working loads.
• The method is also notable for its essential simplicity — in concept, as
well as application.
 Design Philosophies
Ultimate Load Method (ULM)
• With the growing realisation of the shortcomings of WSM in
reinforced concrete design, and with increased understanding of the
behaviour of reinforced concrete at ultimate loads, the ultimate load
method of design (ULM) evolved in the 1950s and became an
alternative to WSM.
• This method is sometimes also referred to as the load factor method
or the ultimate strength method.
• This method is based on the ultimate strength, when the design
member would fail.
• In this method, the stress condition at the state of impending collapse
of the structure is analysed.
• The concept of ‘modular ratio’ and its associated problems are avoided
entirely in this method.
 Design Philosophies
Ultimate Load Method (ULM)
• The safety measure in the design is introduced by an appropriate choice
of the load factor, defined as the ratio of the ultimate load (design load)
to the working load.
• The ultimate load method makes it possible for different types of loads
to be assigned different load factors under combined loading conditions,
thereby overcoming the related shortcoming of WSM.
• This method generally results in more slender sections, and often more
economical designs of beams and columns (compared to WSM),
particularly when high strength reinforcing steel and concrete are used.
 Design Philosophies
Ultimate Load Method (ULM)
• However, the satisfactory ‘strength’ performance at ultimate loads does
not guarantee satisfactory ‘serviceability’ performance at the normal
service loads.
• The designs sometimes result in excessive deflections and crack-widths
under service loads, owing to the slender sections resulting from the use
of high strength reinforcing steel and concrete.
• Unfortunately, such a structural analysis is generally not performed on
reinforced concrete structures, owing to the difficulties in predicting the
behaviour of ‘plastic hinges’ in reinforced concrete.
• This is clearly in error, because significant inelastic behaviour and
redistribution of stress resultants takes place, as the loading is increased
from service loads to ultimate loads.
 Design Philosophies
Limit State Method (LSM)
• The philosophy of the limit states method of design (LSM) represents a
definite advancement over the traditional design philosophies.
• The Limit State Method is defined as a method which limits the
structural usefulness of the material of the structure upto a certain load
at which acceptable limit of safety and serviceability are applied so that
the failure of structure does not occur.
• Unlike WSM, which based calculations on service load conditions
alone, and unlike ULM, which based calculations on ultimate load
conditions alone, LSM aims for a comprehensive and rational solution to
the design problem, by considering safety at ultimate loads and
serviceability at working loads.
 Design Philosophies
Limit State Method (LSM)
• The LSM philosophy uses a multiple safety factor format which
attempts to provide adequate safety at ultimate loads as well as adequate
serviceability at service loads, by considering all possible ‘limit states’
(defined in the next section).
• The selection of the various multiple safety factors is supposed to have a
sound probabilistic basis, involving the separate consideration of
different kinds of failure, types of materials and types of loads.
 Design Philosophies
A limit state is a state of impending failure, beyond which a structure
ceases to perform its intended function satisfactorily, in terms of either
safety or serviceability; i.e., it either collapses or becomes unserviceable.
There are two types of limit states:
1. Ultimate limit states (or ‘limit states of collapse’), which deal with
strength, overturning, sliding, buckling, fatigue fracture, etc.
2. Serviceability limit states, which deal with discomfort to occupancy
and/or malfunction, caused by excessive deflection, crack-width,
vibration, leakage, etc., and also loss of durability, etc.
 Advantages of Limit State Method
• Ultimate load method only deals with safety such as strength,
overturning, and sliding, buckling, fatigue.
• Working stress method only deals with serviceability such as
crack, vibration, deflection etc.
• But, Limit state method advances over other two methods by
considering safety at ultimate load and serviceability at working
load.
• The process of stress redistribution and moment redistribution are
considered in the analysis and more realistic factor of safety
values are used in design., hence, design by limit state method is
found to be more economical.
• The overall sizes of flexural members arrived by limit state
method are less and hence they provide better appearance to the
structure.
 Code Recommendations for Limit State Design
• Characteristic load is defined as the load that has a 95 % probability of
not being exceeded during the life of the structure.
• The design strength of concrete or reinforcing steel is obtained by
dividing the characteristic strength by the appropriate partial safety
factor.
Stress-Strain Curve for Concrete
Stress-Strain Curve for Steel
 Basic Assumptions in RCC design
• The fundamental assumption in flexural theory is that plane cross-
sections (taken normal to the longitudinal axis of the beam) remain
plane even after the beam bends.
• For initially straight members, the assumption implies that the
distribution of normal strains across the beam cross-section is linear.
• For the case of a ‘sagging’ moment, the top fibres (above the neutral
axis) are subjected to compression and the bottom fibres (below the
neutral axis) to tension, with the maximum strains occurring at the most
extreme (top/bottom) surfaces.
• If the moment is ‘hogging’ (‘negative’), as in the case of a cantilever, the
top fibres will be in tension and the bottom fibres in compression.
 Advantages of RCC over other building
materials
• Concrete is workable when fresh and strong when hardens.
• It can be molded into any required shape and size.
• The raw materials required are easily available.
• Skill is not required for casting concrete elements.
• Concrete is durable, fire resisting and rigid.
• Concrete requires less maintenance.
 Disadvantages of RCC over other building
materials
• The self-weight of the structural elements will be more while
concrete is used.
• Concrete has a very low tensile strength. Hence cracks will form
in the tension zone if reinforcement is not provided properly.
• Cracks develop in concrete, also due to shrinkage, creep,
temperature, etc. which permit seepage of water into the concrete.
This causes corrosion of steel reinforcement and thereby peeling
of concrete.
• Concrete has poor insulating property.
• Dismantling and reusing of concrete elements are mostly not
possible.
• Concrete is brittle in nature and hence low impact resisting
capacity.