F U N D A M E N TA L S

OF BUILDING
M AT E R I A L S
STONES
• APPEARANCE: It is important from architectural point of view. Stones which are to be used for face work should
be attractive in appearance and should be of uniform colour and free from clay holes, spots of other colour, bands etc.
• DURABILITY: the stone should not change after being used for construction
• TEXTURE: It relates to the grains of particles composing the stone. It should have a compact crystalline structure
free from cavities , cracks or patches of soft or loose material.
• CRUSHING STRENGTH: also called compressive strength & is defines as the load per unit area at which a stone
starts cracking o00r failing. Should be >100N/mm2
• SPECIFIC GRAVITY: should be > 2.7.
• WATER ABSORPTION: moisture reduces the strength of the rocks and rocks that absorb greater amounts of
moisture show lower strength values. All stones are porous but for a good stone percentage absorption by weight
after 24 hours should not exceed 0.6
STONES ARE USED IN THE FOLLOWING
CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTIONS:

• Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and arches.
• Stones are used for flooring.
• Stone slabs are used as damp proof courses, lintels and even as roofing materials.
• Stones with good appearance are used for the face works of buildings. Polished marbles and granite
are commonly used for face works.
• Stones are used for paving of roads, footpaths and open spaces round the buildings.
• Stones are also used in the constructions of piers and abutments of bridges, dams and retaining walls.
• Crushed stones with graved are used to provide base course for roads. When mixed with tar they
form finishing coat.
STONE FLOORING
POLISHED MARBLE USED AS
WA L L D É C O R & F L O O R I N G
STONE LINTELS
PROPERTIES OF BRICKS
• Should be uniform in shape and standard size
• The brick when broken should show a uniform compact and homogenous structure free from voids
• It should not absorb water more than 20% for first class bricks and 22% for second class bricks when soaked in water for 24
hours
• Should be hard and no impression should be left when scratched
• Should not break when dropped from a height of 1mt
• When soaked in water should not show deposits of white salts
• Crushing strength should be >5.5N/mm2
• Should be free from cracks and have sharp and square edges.
• Colour should be uniform and bright
• Should have good metallic sound when struck together.
M A N U FA C T U R E O F B R I C K S
MOULD FOR BRICKS
TYPES OF BRICKS
Fire Brick

Ordinary Brick
WIRE CUTTING OF BRICKS
TYPES OF BRICKS
• 1. Sun-Dried or Unburnt Clay Bricks
• Sun-dried or unburnt bricks are less durable and these are used for temporary structures. Unburnt
bricks preparation involved in 3 steps they are preparation of clay, molding and drying.
• After molding, bricks are subjected to sunlight and dried using heat from sun.
• they are not that strong and they also have less water resistance and less fire resistance.
• These bricks are not suitable for permanent structures.
S U N - D R I E D O R U N B U R N T C L AY
BRICKS
FIRST CLASS BRICKS

• First class bricks are good quality bricks compared to other classes.
• They are molded by table-molding and burnt in large kilns.
• So, these bricks contain standard shape, sharp edges and smooth surfaces.
• They are more durable and have more strength.
• They can be used for permanent structures.
• However, because of their good properties they are more expensive than other classes.
TA B L E M O L D I N G
SECOND CLASS BRICKS

• Second class bricks are moderate quality bricks and they are molded by ground-molding process
• These bricks are also burnt in kilns.
• But because of ground molding, they do not have smooth surfaces as well as sharp edges.
• The shape of bricks also irregular due to unevenness in ground.
• These also will give best results in strength and durability. Smooth plastering is required on the
brick structure.
GROUND MOLDING
THIRD CLASS BRICKS
• Third class bricks are poor quality bricks which are generally used for temporary structures like
unburnt bricks.
• These are not suitable for rainy areas.
• They are ground-molded type bricks and burnt in clamps.
• The surface of this type of bricks are rough and they have unfair edges.
F LY A S H B R I C K S

•  Fly ash bricks are manufactured using fly ash and water.
• These bricks have better properties than clay bricks and great resistant to freeze thaw cycles.
• These bricks contains high concentration of calcium oxide which is used in cement production,
thus it is also called as self-cementing brick. 
• Fly ash bricks are lightweight and thus it reduces self weight of structures.
• The advantages of fly ash bricks over clay bricks are that they have high fire insulation, high
strength, uniform sizes for better joints and plaster, lower water penetration, does not require
soaking before use in masonry construction.
 CONCRETE BRICKS

Concrete bricks are manufacturing using concrete with ingredients as cement, sand, coarse aggregates and water.
These bricks can be manufactured in sizes as required.
The advantages of using concrete bricks over clay bricks are that they can be manufactured at construction site, reduces quantity of mortar
required, can be manufactured to provide different colors as pigmented during its production.
Concrete bricks are used for construction of masonry and framed buildings, fences, and provide an excellent aesthetic presence
USES OF BRICKS
• Good quality bricks (1st and 2nd class) are used in the construction of buildings, tunnels, etc.
• 3rd class and unburnt bricks are used for temporary structures.
• 4th class bricks are used as aggregate for making concrete.
• Bricks are also used for architectural purposes to give aesthetic appearance to the structure.
• Construction of brick retaining wall
B R I C K R E T A I N I N G WA L L
RIBBED TORSTEEL BARS
• They are produced from deformed high strength steel
• These bars have ribs or projections on their surface
• They are available in sizes varying from 6 to 50mm.
• They are used as reinforcement in concrete structures
• It is possible to bend them through 180deg without forming any cracks or fractures on outer surface
• They possess better structural properties than round steel bars thus possible to design them with
higher stresses
• They possess excellent bonding properties
M O RTA R
F U N C T I O N S O F M O RTA R
• To bind building materials such as bricks and stones into a solid mass
• To form an even and soft bedding layer for building units
• To serve as a matrix to hold the coarse aggregates
• To hide the open joints of brickwork and stone work
CEMENT
• Portland cement has adhesive & cohesive properties which provide a binding
medium for the discrete ingredients
• It is obtained by burning together a mixture of argillaceous( containing
alumina) & calcareous ( containing calcium carbonate or lime) to a partial
fusion at high temp ( 1450 deg cent)
• Product obtained on burning is called clinker
• It is cooled & ground to reqd fineness & the material is called cement
• Its inventor, Joseph Aspdin, called it portland cement because when it
hardened it resembled a stone from quarries near portland
• Common calcareous materials are limestone, chalk etc
• Argillaceous materials are clay, shale, blast furnace slag etc
• 2 types of processes for manufacture of cement wet & dry
• In the wet process, limestone is crushed to small fragments
• It is then taken to a tube mill
• Here it is mixed with clay or shale & then ground to a fine consistency
• Then water is added & it becomes a slurry
• The slurry is a liquid of creamy consistency with water content of 35 to 50 %
• This slurry is pumped to slurry tanks or basins where it is kept agitated by
means of rotating arms with chains or blowing compressed air from the
bottom to prevent settling of limestone & clay particles
• Composition of the slurry is tested to give reqd chemical composition &
corrected time to time by mixing slurries from different tanks
• Corrected slurry is sprayed on the upper end of a kiln which is an important
component of cement factory
• It is a thick cylinder of dia 3 to 8 mts
• It is lined with refractory materials
• Mounted on rollers & capable of rotating about its own axis
• Length of kiln may vary from 30 to 200 mts
• When the slurry is sprayed against a hot surface loses moisture & becomes flakes
which peel off & fall on the floor
• As the material rolls down to the lower part of the kiln, the dry material undergoes a
series of chemical reactions
• In the hottest part of the kiln, where temp is 1500 deg cent 20 to 30 % materials get
fused
• Fused mass turns into modular form of 3 to 20mm known as clinker
• This clinker is then cooled
• Cooled clinker is then ground in a ball mill with 2 to 3% gypsum
• The particles crushed to reqd fineness are separated by currents of air & taken to
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
• Raw materials of cement mainly lime, silica, alumina & iron oxide.
• These oxides react to form more complex compounds in the kiln
• 4 major compounds are tricalcium silicate, dicalcium silicate, tricalcium
aluminate, & tetracalcium aluminoferrite
• Tricalcium silicate & dicalcium silicate are responsible for strength , &
constitute 70 to 80% of cement.
• C3s readily reacts with water & produces more hydration
• It is responsible for early strength of concrete
• C2s hydrates slowly
• It is responsible for the later strength of concrete
H Y D R AT I O N O F C E M E N T
• It is a process of chemical reaction between cement & water
• It results in 1st setting ( concrete becomes solid ) & then hardening ( increase of strength &
stiffness)
• Hydration is a chemical reaction in which the major compounds in cement form chemical bonds
with water molecules & form hydrates
• Different compounds hydrate at different rates & liberate different quantities of heat
• The hydration reaction is faster at an early period & continues indefinitely
FIELD TESTING OF CEMENT
• Open the bag & take a good look at the cement. There should not be any
lumps. The colour should be greenish grey
• thrust your hand in the cement it should give cool feeling
• Take a pinch & feel in between your fingers. It should be smooth & not gritty
• Take a handful & throw on a bucket full of water. The particles should float
for some time before they sink
• Take about 100 gms of cement & a small qty of water & make a stiff paste .
From this paste make a cake with sharp edges. Put it on a glass plate & slowly
take it under water in a bucket .after 24 hrs the cake should retain its original
shape
TYPES OF CEMENTS
• Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
• Portland pozzolana cement is prepared by grinding pozzolanic clinker with Portland cement.
• It is also produced by adding pozzolana with the addition of gypsum or calcium sulfate or by
intimately and uniformly blending Portland cement and fine pozzolana.
• This cement has a high resistance to various chemical attacks on concrete compared with ordinary
portland cement, and thus, it is widely used.
• It is used in marine structures, sewage works, sewage works, and for laying concrete underwater,
such as bridges, piers, dams, and mass concrete works, etc.
• Rapid Hardening Cement
• Rapid hardening cement attains high strength in the early days; it is used in concrete where
formworks are removed at an early stage and are similar to ordinary portland cement (OPC)
• . This cement has increased lime content and contains higher c3s content and finer grinding,
which gives higher strength development than OPC at an early stage.
• The strength of rapid hardening cement at the three days is similar to 7 days strength of OPC with
the same water-cement ratio.
• Thus, the advantage of this cement is that formwork can be removed earlier, which increases the
rate of construction and decreases the cost of construction by saving formwork cost.
• Rapid hardening cement is used in prefabricated concrete construction, road works, etc.
B U L K I N G O F A G G R E G AT E S
• Free moisture content in fine aggregates results in bulking of volume
• The moisture forms a film around each particle
• This film exerts a surface tension which keeps the neighboring particles away
from it
• Thus no point of contact is possible between the particles
• This causes bulking of volume
• Extent of surface tension will depend on % of moisture content & the particle
size of the fine aggregate
• Bulking increases with the increase in moisture content upto a certain limit &
if moisture is further increased then there is decrease in volume
• Fine sands bulk more & coarse sands bulk less
• Due to bulking fine aggregate shows unrealistic volume
• Thus consideration must be given to effect of bulking in proportioning the
concrete by volume
PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS
• Plastics offer great resistance against chemicals and solvents.
• Chemical composition of plastics during manufacturing will decide the degree of chemical resistance.
• Most of the plastics available in the market offer great corrosion resistance.
• So, corrosive metals are replaced by plastic in the case of water carrying pipes, etc.
• Plastics are good electric insulators.
• So they are used as linings for electric cables and for electronics tools.
• Any type of finishing treatment can be given to the plastics
• Fixing of plastic materials is so easy. We can bolt, drill or glued to fix plastic material position.
• Maintaining of plastics are so simple. Because they do not need any surface finishing coats or paints 
• By the saturation of phenolic resins we can produce acoustic boards. These acoustic boards are
sound absorbents and provide sound insulation. Generally for theatres, seminar halls this type of
acoustic ceilings are used.
PVC casing on metal moulding
C A R B O N F I B R E FA B R I C
• Carbon fiber fabric is a strong fiber that is light in weight and has long strands interwoven
together so that it forms a fabric-like structure.
• Carbon fiber, known as graphite fiber, dominates the steel in terms of strength, stiffness, and load-
bearing capacity.
• These leading properties make carbon fiber a perfect building material in construction projects. It
works best with the structures that receive high impact loads.
PROPERTIES
• Carbon fiber is flexible
• Carbon fiber is chemically stable
• It posses good electrical conductivity
• Carbon fiber has considerable resistance to fire
• The strength to weight ratio of carbon fiber is very high
USE OF CARBON FIBER FOR PRECAST
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

• The use of carbon fibers in precast concrete elements is gaining massive popularity in the USA.
The standard steel mesh reinforcement used in the outer and the inner section of concrete precast
wall elements can be replaced by the sheets or grids of carbon fibers.
• By the use of carbon fiber instead of steel mesh, the overall weight of the structural unit
decreases. A welded grid used in concrete slab construction can be replaced by a carbon fiber
grid, which reduces total weight
CARBON FIBRE PRECAST SLAB
CARBON FIBER AS
REINFORCEMENT

• Carbon fibers are gaining more popularity in strengthening the concrete structures externally.
• It is used as an external reinforcement for columns.
• Hence it is taking a role in rehabilitation also.
• This strengthening method reduces the need for extra anchoring works and installation, which is
very time consuming and costly.
BEAM STRENGTHENED BY
CARBON FIBRE