873

STATIC BENDING OF PRE-TWISTED CANTILEVER

BLADING
By William Carnegie, B.Sc., Ph.D. (Associate Member)"
In the present paper the static bending of pre-twisted cantilever blading is examined.
The blading is pre-twisted linearly about the centroid of its cross-section to a maximum
angle of n/2 radians and is considered to be mounted encastr6 at the root. The behaviour
of such blading, particularly when bending under a distributed load, is of considerable
practical importance.
By the application of variational calculus, static equilibrium equations are derived from
expressions for the total potential energy of blades subject to either concentrated or
uniformly distributed bending loads. Solution of the equilibrium equations yields
expressions for the static deflexions. Over a range of pre-twist angles between 0 and n/2
radians deflexions are calculated for blades of (1) narrow rectangular cross-section when
subjected to either method of loading, (2) narrow aerofoil cross-section when subjected to
a uniformly distributed load.
Sets of steel cantilever blades of MITOW rectangular cross-section are loaded laterally
at their free ends and the deflexions determined by measurement. The experimental
values of deflexion compare reasonably with the relevant calculated ones. Small
discrepancies bemeen the two sets of results are not yet fully explained and further
investigation of the problem is under consideration.
For blades where the pre-twist angles do not exceed 7r/2 radians, the agreement
obtained between the two sets of deflexions for the concentrated load system is such that
the validity of the theory, when it is applied to other loading systems, can safely be
assumed without further recourse to experiment.

INTRODUCTION pre-twisted blades, use will be made of the static bending

THEADVENT OF THE GASTURBINE in recent years has resulted results in analysing the dynamic problem. The conse-
in the use of pre-twisted blading in both the turbo- quences of failure, due to fatigue resulting from the pro-
compressor and the turbine unit. Particularly in the turbo- longed vibrations, of blades of rotating machines requires
compressor designed on the basis of the 'Free Vortex' no emphasis.
theory, blades possessing considerable axial pre-twist are
encountered. The static and dynamic behaviour of blades Notation
each depend to a significant extent on the magnitude of the
A Area.
pre-twist imposed.
A Constant.
The static bending of pre-twisted blades of 'thin-walled'
B Constant.
section is analysed by Zickel (1955)t, the pre-twist angles
considered being between 0 and 10 7-r radians. The theory
C Torsional stiffness.
C Constant.
given is stated, however, to be inaccurate at small pre-twist
angles. The objects of the present paper are to study the
D Constant.
static bending of cantilever blades having pre-twist angles
E Modulus of elasticity.
not greater than 4 2 radians and provide expressions for
E Constant.
the lateral deflexions.
F Fibre force.
F Constant.
In a subsequent report dealing with the vibrations of Shear force in xlz plane.
F,
The MS. of this paper wasjirst received at the Institution on 26th FY Shear force in ylz plane.
February 1957.
* Lecturm, The University, Birmingham. 4% Second moment of area of section about xlxl.
t An alphabetical list of references is given in Appendix V I . IYY
Second moment of area of section about ylyl.

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 WILLIAM CARNEGIE

Product moment of area of section about xlxland 41 Slope in xlz plane.

42
YIYI.
Second moment of area of section about X X .
Second moment of area of section about Y Y .
*
P
Slope in y l z plane.
Variational function.
Density.
Length.
Bending moment in xlz plane. STATIC DEFLEXION RELATIONSHIPS
Bending moment in y l z plane. The procedure for determining the static deflexion relation-
Radius of curvature in xlz plane. ships of pre-twisted blading consists of the application of
Radius of curvature in y l z plane. variational methodst to the equations for total potential
Torque or twisting moment. energy V of blades subjected to either a concentrated or a
Total potential energy, variational integral. uniformly distributed bending load. Solution of the re-
Concentrated load. sulting equations of equilibrium yields expressions for the
Concentrated load applied at distance L along static deflexions.
blade.
Co-ordinate measured from centroid in X Concentrated Load System
direction.
Co-ordinate measured from centroid in Y When a horizontal blade, of negligible weight, is subjected
to a concentrated load acting vertically downwards through
direction.
the centroid of the cross-section at the free end, the total
Co-ordinate measured from centroid in x direction.
potential energy V,as derived in Appendix 111, is given by
Co-ordinate measured from centroid in y direction.
equation (66), namely,
Strain.
Normal stress.
Gravitational acceleration.
Width of cross-section.
Depth of cross-section.
Co-ordinate distance between centre-of-flexure
and centroid in x direction. where the blade is initially along the zz axis, the positive y
Co-ordinate distance between centre-of-flexure axis is vertically upwards, and the second moments of area
and centroid in y direction. (I,,, Iyy)and the product moment (I,) are taken about the
Co-ordinate distance between centre-of-flexure reference axes xlxland ylyl.
and centroid in X direction. Only rectangular cross-section blades are considered for
Co-ordinate distance between centre-of-flexure the concentrated load system. Hence r, = 0 and equation
and centroid in Y direction. (1) reduces to
Curved length.
Potential energy.
Strain energy.
+YLYI, * (2)
Weight per unit length.
Deflexion of centre-of-flexure in xz plane.
Deflexion of centroid in xlz plane.
Deflexion of centre-of-flexure in y z plane. symmetry.
2 dz Cid0)2
the term - - being eliminated from considerations of

Deflexion of centroid in y l z plane. For stable equilibrium to obtain in a static system the
Co-ordinate distance measured along - blade. potential energy must be a minimum. Ignoring the boun-
X X , Y Y Principal axes through centroid. dary term WLyLin the expression for V , since it does not
xx, y y Co-ordinate axes through centre-of-ff exure. affect the minimum value of the remaining integral, equa-
xlxl,ylyl Co-ordinate axes through centroid. tion (2) is of the form of equation (74), Appendix IV. Thus
zz Longitudinal axis. application of the relevant Euler characteristic equations
xLy yL,,+ 0, Deflexions at distance L along blade. (75a) and (75b), also given in Appendix IVYto the integral
x', xl', y', y 1 , 8 etc. First derivatives with respect to z. of equation (2) results in the following pair of simultaneous
x", xll', y", y1", 8" etc. Second derivatives with respect equations representing the condition of stable equilibrium
to 2. of a blade, namely,
c.g. Centroid.
c.f. Centre-of-flexure.*
CY Angle between co-ordinate axes xlxl, y l y l and
principal axes X X , Y Y . Angle of pre-twist and

e
about line of centroid.
Static angle of elastic twist or torsional deflexion. EkyyE) (g)}
dz2 +EIxy =0 . (3b)

* A dejinicion of 'Centre-of-Flexure' is given in Appendix V. j-A brief discussion of variationaf calculus is given in Appendix IV.

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 STATIC BENDING OF PRE-TWISTED CANTILEVER BLADING 875

Integrating these equations twice By the use of standard trigonometrical relationships

and
. . . (10)
EIyyE)+EIxy@) = Cz+D = M , . (4b) Double integration of this equation, making use of the
appropriate boundary conditions, namely (dyldz) = y = 0
where A, ByC and D are arbitrary constants. The addition at z = 0, results in an expression for y; putting z = L in
of the final elements (My,M,) to the equations follows this expression gives
directly from the results of analyses given in Appendix I,
sin 2uL-2u,
that is equations (38a) and (38b).
Since the load W (W = W,) is applied in the yz plane it
follows that M, = 0. Also if z is measured from the root . . . (11)
and L is the blade length, My = - WL at z = 0 and hence Although when uL = 0 the final bracket is indeterminate,
My = - WL = B. At z = L, however, My = 0 and there- successive differentiation shows that equation (11) reduces
+
fore 0 = AL+B = AL- WL; thus A = W and for the WL3
general point My = - WL+ Wz = - W(L-z). toy, = -- , the standard expression for the deflexion
3EL
Thus equations (4a) and (4b) become of a straight blade of uniform cross-section.
For a blade of rectangular cross-section and thickness
mn3 121133 IXx n2
ratio nlm, I,, = - 12, Iyy = - and - = -; thus
12 IYY m2

Simultaneous solution of equations (5a) and (5b) will . . . (12a)

result in expressions for the deflexions x and y in terms of
the blade dimensions, the elastic constants, the loading and A second solution of the simultaneous equations (5a) and
angle of pre-twist. (5b) will yield a value for the x deflexion x, at the free end
Rearrangement of equation (5b) and substitution into of the blade, which in the case of the rectangular cross-
(5a) gives section is
WL3 cos 2UL+2UL2--1
UL3

Putting uL = 0 in equation (12b), the final bracket is

Combining equations (42) (44) and (46), Appendix 11, it indeterminate. Successive differentiation shows that x, = 0
can readily be shown that (Ixx Iyy-Ixy2) = I,,Zyy. Thus which is the expected result for a straight blade.
equation (6) may, with slight rearrangement, be written Letting n = m in the above equations, deflexion ex-
pressions for a square-section cantilever bar are obtained,
namely,
WL3
Hence by use of equation (44), y,=--;x,=O
3EIXX
. * (13) .
(IyycOs2 U+ I,, sin2 u)W(L-z) For convenience of general application equations (12a)
EIXXIYY
- (8) and (12b) can easily be expressed in dimensionless form.
Thus writing 5= WL3/3EI,
Considering the angle of pre-twist a to vary in a linear
manner along the length of the blade then, in general,
a = Ez+F. If a = 0 at the root cross-section, however,
F = 0 since z = 0. Thus, letting u = at the free end, . . . (14a)
it follows that U, = EL or E = uL/L; hence a = zccL/L.
Subsdtuting this expression for u in equation (8)
(f) = 8{1-(;zm)z){
cos 2uL+2uL2- 1
aL3
} * (14b)

The dimensionless deflexions (yLb)and (x,/j) are thus

expressed in terms of the thickness ratio (n/m) of the blade
and the angle of pre-twist a,; they are independent of the
. . - (9) blade length and its material.

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876 WILLIAM CARNEGIE

Uniformly Distributed Load System For a rectangular cross-section blade, since,Z = mn3/l2
When a horizontal blade deflects owing to its own dis- and I,, = nrn3/l2, equations (Ha) and (18b) can be
tributed weight, the total potential energy V stored is given written
by equations (67) or (68), Appendix 111. If the positive y cos 2ffL+2ffL2-
1
axis of reference is taken to be vertically upwards then the
.
L
4
potential energy is thus
. . . (19a)

Equation (15) is of the form of equation (74), Appendix
IVYand application to it of equations (75a), (75b) and (75c),
Appendix IVYresults in the following set of stable equili-
brium equations
XL =- --
The completion of the problem requires the solution of
the independent equation (16c). To integrate this equation
it is necessary to substitute for r, which is given by equation
(47a), Appendix 11. For a blade having a linear pre-twist
variation with length this equation becomes

"[.I..($)+EIV($)]
dz2
= -w . (16a) r, = r, cos (7)-r, sin (F) . . (20)

$kyy($)+EIXy($)] =0 . (16b) since CI = 0 at z = 0 and, thus, CI =

-$[.g)j = -wr,

Substituting from equations (38a) and (38b), Appendix I,

it follows that
(16c) Substitution of equation (20) into equation (16c) gives

%[.(g)j = w[r, cos e ) - r y sin

Double integration of this equation making use of the

e)] . (21)

d2M
Y =
dz2
-w . . . . (16d) appropriate boundary conditions, To = 0 at z = L and
0 = 0 at z = 0, results in an expression for 8. Considering
d2MX
--
dz2
-0 . . . . (16e) the blade cross-section to be uniform, that is Cis a constant,
the expression for 0 at z = L is, namely,
For a blade of uniform cross-section the torsional stiffness
Cis a constant and, thus, equation (16c) can be written e, = C -{
wrxL2 1- cos aL-ctL sin ctL

C(2) = wr, . . . . (16f)

Combination of equations (16a) and (16b) with equations
(16d) and (16e) respectively followed by double integration With aL = 0 the above expression is indeterminate but,
of the two resulting expressions, making use of the relevant on successivedifferentiation of numerator and denominator,
boundary conditions, gives reduces to

which is the equation for the angle (8), of elastic twist when
kyy($)+EIm(g)] = 0 = M, (17b) pre-twist is absent.
For a rectangular cross-section blade, since r, = ry = 0,
Simultaneous solution of these two equations, as pre-
viously carried out for the concentrated load system, eL=o . . . . - (24)
results in the following expressions for the tip deflexions To summarize the results of the present analysis,
YL and XL equations (18a), (18b) and (22) may be expressed in dimen-
yL = 1+2}+${
-g-[+{ I-?}{
cos 2aL+2aL2-- 1
aL4 11 sionless form. Using the parameters 7 = wL4/8EI, and
-
0 = wrxL2/2C then
. . . (Ha) cos 2ffL+2aL*- 1
($)= -+{1+5}-${1-5}{ aL4
1
. . . (25a)
When uL = 0 equations (Ma) and (18b) reduce to yL
= -wL4/8EI, and xL= 0 which are the standard results
for a blade without pre-twist. ffL4
} ..
sin 2ffL-2CIL+4aL3
(25b)

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 STATIC BENDING OF PRE-TWISTED CANTILEVER BLADING
1- cos aL-olL sin aL
Thus the dimensionless deflexions (y,l?j>(x,E)and (eL/8)
are dependent only on the shape of the cross-section
and the angle of pre-twist.
Boundary Conditions
The boundary conditions of the two problems analysed
above have been deduced by inspection of the system. In
each case they are required to satisfy the additional terminal
point equation quoted in Appendix IV if the first variation
is to vanish completely. Hence the validity of the chosen
boundary conditions can be verified.
Application of the terminal-point equation (76), given in
Appendix IV, to equation (15) for the uniformly distributed
loading system gives
. . (26) - values of potential energy, and hence for equilibrium, of
Making use of equations (38a), (38b), (40a) and (40b),
Appendix I and equation (53), Appendix 111, equation (26)
becomes
[ ~ s ~ ~ M , - ~ ~ F , ~ + (se~,)]: ~~~~ =Mo ~(27)- ~ ~ F the
This expression must be satisfied separately at each of
the limits in order that the first variation shall vanish. Thus,
for the upper limit
(~Y'LM,--SY,F,L)+(~X'LM~L- SxLFxL)+(seLTd = 0
. . . (28a)
and for the lower limit
(SY 'OMyo + +
-SY OF,,) (Sx'oMxo-~ x o ~ x o(680 ) To,) = 0
. . . (28b)
For a cantilever blade, measuring distance z from the
root, it is known that yo,yo),xo, xo' and Oo, referred to as the
imposed boundary conditions, are all zero. Thus, since the
variations of fixed quantities are zero, 6y0, Syo), 6x0, 8x0'
and SOo are also zero and hence condition (28b) is Ilfilled.
The terms y,, y,', x, x,' and 8, are not prescribed and
their variations (8yL,Sy,' etc.) can, thus, be arbitrary. In
order that condition (28a) shall be fulfilled, as is necessary
for the fist variation to vanish, MyL,FyLy MxL, FxL and
To, must each be equal to zero. Hence, application of the
terminal-point equation specifies the additional boundary
conditions (M%,FyLetc.) necessary to satisfy the problem.
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a77
The boundary conditions for the concentrated load
system can also be established by slight modifications to the
above procedure. Owing to the presence of the constant
term in equation (2), applicable to the concentrated load
system, an additional quantity WL6yLmust be added to the
- terminal-point equations (26) and (27), thus, allowing for
an arbitrary variation Sy, of the terminal function y,. The
lower limit equation (28b) established above, is unaltered
except for the elimination of the term containing 8, elastic
twist in this case being absent. For a cantilever blade
measuring distance z from the root as before, the terms yo,
yo),xo, and xo) are all zero and thus the lower-limit equation
is satisfied. The upper-limit equation (28a) afier elimination
of the 6 terms, becomes
(SyL'MyL- ~YLFJ+(SXL'MXL- + ~ L ~ =
Y L0
. . . (28c)
Since the terms y,, y:, 3c, and x; are not prescribed,
their variations (6yL,Sy,' etc.) are arbitrary. Thus, to fulfil
equation (28c), as is necessary for the first variation to
vanish completely, MPL,MxLand FxLmust each be equal
to zero: also WLSyL-F,,Sy, = 0 and thus FyL= VLas
is to be expected for a blade subjected to a concentrated
load WLat its free end.
Summary
By application of the calculus of variations, equations have
been established fulfilling the requirements for stationary
pre-twisted cantilever blades subjected to either single
concentrated or uniformly distributed lateral loading. The
boundary conditions applicable to either method of loading
have also been established. The second variation deciding
, ~ stability
+ or otherwise of the equilibrium conditions is
not here examined, the stability of the system being
assumed.
EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENTS
Before presenting the deflexion calculations, a brief descrip-
tion of the experimental work will be given. The deflexion
tests described are confined to pre-twisted steel blades of
uniform
loads at
rectangular cross-section subjected to concentrated
their free ends. Each blade is mounted rigidly as a
cantilever and, on application of a load to its free end, the
resulting deflexions are determined by means of (1) a pair
of dial gauges, (2) a travelling microscope.
The apparatus used is shown in Fig. 1, Plate 1. The pre-
twisted blade, provided with a short straight length for
mounting purposes, is gripped rigidly in the steel mounting
block. The fiee end of the blade has a small projection a
machined on it to which the loading string is attached and
loads may be applied either vertically, or horizontallymaking
use of the roller b shown in Fig. lb. The two dial gauges,
from which the restoring springs have been removed, are
fitted with light cylindricalfeet c along which the blade can
slide. One of the dial gauges is arranged to measure vertical
818 WILLIAM CARNEGIE
tip deflexions, the other to measure horizontal tip deflexions.
The travelling microscope is also illustrated in its two
positions, one for vertical (Fig. la) and the other for
horizontal (Fig. lb) deflexion measurements.
Tests were carried out on seven mild steel blades pro-
vided with axial pre-twists of 0, 15, etc. up to 90 deg. Each
blade was pre-twisted over a length of 6 inches, the actual
method used being shownin Fig. 2, Plate 1. A 2-inch straight
length was left at one end of the blade for mounting and
the projection a formed on the other end after pre-twisting.
The cross-sec6on of the blade material measured 1 inch x
iLc inch (nominal) and its modulus of elasticity, determined
in an accurately conducted tensile test on a specimen of the
rolled strip, was found to be 30x 106 Ib. per sq. in. A
complete set of pre-twisted blades is illustrated in Fig. 3,
Plate 1.
The test procedure was, briefly, as follows. With one of
the blades mounted in the block (Fig. 1) the dial gauges
were arranged to record, respectively, any vertical and
horizontal displacements of the tip section. Readings of the
gauges were taken before and after the application of a 1 lb.
load, applied first vertically and then horizontally, and the
deflexions for each method of loading deduced. The pos-
sibility of error due to backlash in the springless gauges was
eliminated by taking several readings with both rising and
falling loads. Care was also required to ensure that the dial
gauge feet were actually contacting the blade tip before a
reading was obtained.
The optical measurements were conducted thus. With
the travelling microscope mounted in the position shown in
Fig. la, its horizontal hairline was sighted on one comer of
the blade tip section and the reading of the vernier observed.
After application of the load the hairline was resighted on
the comer of the blade, by rotation of the micrometer screw,
and a second reading of the vernier taken. The vertical
deflexion was thus readily determined. Measurement of
horizontal deflexions using the microscope presented some
difficulty. Associated with the horizontal deflexions being
measured were the accompanying vertical deflexions which,
in some cases, were large enough to exceed the aperture of
the microscope. Hence if the blade was visible before de-
flexion it was out of view after deflexion and, with the
microscope set in the position shown in Fig. lb, vertical
adjustment was not available to bring the blade again into
view after loading. The problem was surmounted as follows.
The square d was set up against the blade adjacent to the
end cross-section, the vertical hairline in the eyepiece being
made coincident with one of the vertical edges of the square
and the vernier reading obtained. The load was applied and
the square moved, in a direction normal to the blade
longitudinal axis, till it again contacted the blade. By
rotation of the micrometer screw the hairline was adjusted
to coincide once more with the edge of the square and a
second reading of the vernier was taken. Hence the hori-
zontal deflexion could be determined.
The above procedure was conducted on each of the blades
in turn and the deflexions so obtained, together with
theoretically calculated values, are presented below.
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THEORETICAL A N D EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS
Concentrated Load System: Rectangular Cross-
section
The measured static deflexions of the rectangular cross-
section blades are presented in Fig. 4a, Plate 2, for the
vertical load application and Fig. 4b, Plate 2, for the hori-
zontal load application. Results obtained with both the dial
gauges and the travelling microscope are presented to a
base of pre-twist angle ctL. The experimental deflexion
values are plotted at the actual values of pre-twist angle ocL
which differs slightly from the nominal figures of 0 deg.,
15 deg., etc. The corresponding theoretical curves, cal-
culated from equations (12a) and (12b), are also given. In
the calculations a mean value of 0.0635inch was used for
n (Fig. 5a, Plate 2) and m (Fig. 5b, Plate 2). Actual width
and thickness values of the specimens are presented in
Table 1 for reference.
Table 1. Thickness Values of Rectangular
Cross-section Specimens
1 1 1 1
0
m/n, inches . 1 :1 :3 :4 :6 7: 90
1
n/m, inches . 0.063 0.064 0.064 0.063 0.064 0.063 0.064
It will be seen from studying the curves that a reasonable
measure of agreement exists between the measured and
theoretical deflexions. With the load applied vertically (Fig.
4a) the measured deflexions tend, however, to be greater
than the calculated ones. Den Hartog (1952) quotes the
fact that pre-twisted blades of thin-walled section display
much greater deflexions than those predicted by existing
theory, this being due to inclination of the blade fibres. The
problem has since been analysed by Zickel(l955) for blades
of thin-walled section, pre-twist angles up to values of 10 7~
radians being considered. At the pre-twist angles of the
blades examined in the present report, however, the de-
flexion increase expected due to this effect is not greater than
about 1per cent. Furthermore examinationof Fig. 4b reveals
that, in this case, the measured deflexions are less than the
calculated ones. A complete explanation of this unexpected
behaviour of pre-twisted blades is not yet available. How-
ever, it can be shown qualitatively that, in addition to
modified bending moments resulting from inclination of the
blade fibres, there are lateral moments produced which tend
to deform the blade cross-section. This deformation would
modify the blade deflexions, calculated on the basis of the
simple bending theory, in a manner consistent with the
corresponding observations for both methods of loading.
Further investigations of either a theoretical or experimental
nature are required to confirm such a tentative theory.
Otherwise it should be treated with some caution. The
argument given does not account for the considerable
difference between theory and practice shown by the y
deflexions of Fig. 4a when pre-twist is absent. If, for
example, the difference is due to an error in the value used
 STATIC BENDING OF PRE-TWISTED CANTILEVER BLADING Plate I

a Vertical position. b Horizontal position,

Fig. 1. Static De$exion Apparatus

Fig. 2. Method of Pre-twisting Fig. 3. Set of Pre-twisted Blades

[I.Mech.E., 19571

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Plate 2 WILLIAM CARNEGIE

014 0.03

012

.A
0.10 3 0.02
Y) z
I I
U z
z P
6-I 008 2
2
Y

; B
U
YI

004 2 0 0I

0.02

X
0 0
0 20 40 tn 80 I
ANGLE OF PRE-TWIST,aL-DEGREES

a Load applied vertically.

x Microscope. o Dial gauges. Theoretical.

Fig. 4. Static Dejexions of Rectangular Cross-section Blades Subjected to Concentrated Loading

Y
I
Y
\

i"

\. ' ROOT SECTlON

a Load applied vertically. b Load applied horizontally.

Fig. 5 . Views Looking Axially Along a Typical Blade from Tip towards Root Cross-section

[I.Mech.E., 19571

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 STATIC BENDING OF PRE-TWISTED CANTILEVER BLADING 879

for the modulus of elasticity then all the theoretical curves

will be affected. The author’s opinion is that, since con-
siderable care was taken in the determination of the
modulus, it is more likely due to another cause not yet
explained.
Two secondary effects are worthy of mention since they
will modify, slightly, the measured deflexion values. First,
during the pre-twisting, the blade sections adjacent to the
mounting block were not subject to pure torsion due to
longitudinal constraints; this caused a small amount of
non-linearity in the pre-twist at one end of the blades.
Secondly, an additional amount of work hardening of the
rolled steel strips occurred when the pre-twist was imposed
which could lower the elastic modulus. Neither of these
factors can account for the observed behaviour of the blades,
and their influence on the measured deflexions would, in
fact, be almost negligible. It should also be noted that the
effect of shear was neglected in the theoretical analysis
since, for the blade lengths considered, its contribution to
ANGLE OF PRE-TWIST.a,,-DEGREES
the deflexions would be extremely small.
Referring again to the curves in Fig. 4a it will be observed a Broad face of root cross-section horizontal.
that, generally, the measured deflexions obtained using the
microscope are greater than those recorded by the dial I .o

gauges. The discrepancies are due, in all probability, to the

dial-gauge feet not contacting the blade at its most extreme
section; hence the readings would be less than expected. 08
The differences of magnitude between the two sets of
experimental results plotted on. Fig. 4b are much less -
T,
consistent in .this respect and at some points the dial gauge X
deflexions are the larger. This apparent contradiction in M 06
I
behaviour was put down to the effects of friction at the U
z
bearing of the roller over which the load was applied. I
Errors due to this cause were to some extent eliminated by P
0.4
care in load application. -I
Y

The slight scatter in the experimental points can be ;

accounted for by small variations in thickness of the
individual blades (Table 1). Deflexions are particularly
sensitive to changes of thickness since, in the deflexion
formulae, this parameter is raised to the third power.
The agreement shown between the theoretical and the
observed results, although referring only to the special case
of a concentrated load system, confirms in large measure
the validity of the theoretical approach. When a blade
deflects under its own distributed weight, it appears
justifiable to expect a similar measure of agreement between
calculated and measured deflexions. The theoretical ex-
pressions for x and y (and O), deduced for the distributed
loading system, can thus be used with reasonable confidence
in future dynamic problems.
Distributed Load System : Rectangular Cross-
section
The theoretical deflexions of cantilever blades of uniform
rectangular cross-seaion, subjected to uniformly distri-
buted loads (that is their own weight) and mounted with
their longitudinal axes horizontal, are presented in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6a gives the calculated results for blades having their
broad faces at the root cross-sections arranged horizontally
02
I
0, 20 40 60 80 I
ANGLE OF PRE-TWIST,aL-DEGREES
b Broad face of root cross-section vertical.
Fig. 6. Theoretical Static Dejexions of Rectangular Cross-
section Blades Subjected to Uniformly Distributed
Loading
as shown in Fig. 7a. Fig. 6b gives the calculated results for
blades having their broad faces at the root cross-sections
arranged vertically as shown in Fig. 7b. Use is made of
equations (19a) and (19b) to calculate the deflexions.
Since one purpose of the present calculations is to provide
data for use in further analyses, the curves in Fig. 6 are
based on the actual blade dimensions appropriate to the
corresponding future tests, namely width m/or depth n = 1
inch, depth n/ or width m = 0.068 inch, length L = 6
inches, modulus E = 3 0 106 ~ Ib. per sq. in., density
p = 0.284 Ib. per cu. in., material-rolled steel strip.

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880 WILLIAM CARNEGIE

ROOT SECTION

Y
a Broad face of root cross-section horizontal. b Broad face of root cross-section vertical.

Fig. 7. View Looking Axially Along a Typical Blade from Tip towards Root Cross-section

I .4
I I

I.3

I.2

7 1.1
0
X
ul
I
U
f 03
z
0
5
Y

01

0.1

I I I I
-0.1 20 40 60 a0
ANGLE OF PRE-TWIST,aL-DECREES
ANGLE OF PRE-TWIST,aL-DEGREES

a Base line of root cross-section approximately horizontal. b Base line of root cross-section approximately vertical.

Fig. 8. Theoretical Static Dejexions and Elastic Twists of Aerofoil Cross-section Blades Subjected to Uniformly Distributed
Loading

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 STATIC BENDING OF PRE-TWISTED CANTILEVER BLADING aa I

Distributed Load System: Aerofoil Cross-section
The theoretical deflexions and elastic twists of cantilever
blades of uniform asymmetrical aerofoil cross-section,
mounted with their longitudinal axes horizontal and sub-
jected to uniformly distributed loads acting vertically down-
ward, are shown graphically in Fig. 8. The results presented
in Fig. 8a are for blades arranged as indicated in Fig. 9a;
the results presented in Fig. 8b are for blades arranged as
indicated in Fig. 9b. The deflexions are calculated using
equations (18a), (18b) and (22).
As before, the calculations are based on the dimensions
of blades on which future tests are to be made. The blade
cross-section, with the position of the centroid and centre-
of-flexure marked, is shown in Fig. 10 and the following
particulars refer to it. I,,/ or I, = 0.0001 inch4, I,,/ or
I, = 0.006 71 inch4, (I, and Iyy were determined by
the derived area method from a large-scale diagram of the
cross-section); area A = 0.0914 sq. in., angle of inclination
between principal axis XX/or Y Y and base line of section
= 2 deg. (Fig. lo), density p = 0.284 lb. per cu. in.,
modulus E = 31 x lo6 lb. per sq. in., length L = 6 inches,
r,/ or r, = 0.0076 inch, ry/ or r, = 0.0470 inch, material
-stainless iron. (The co-ordinates of the centre-of-flexure
in relation to the centroid were determined experimentally
as will be described in a later report.) Values of torsional
stiffness C were obtained from supplementary tests also to
be described in a later report.
Torsional deflexions 0, are calculated for positive and
yg (POSITIVE)

il
Y BL(NECATIVE)
\ \

aL(POSITIVE)

XI
___- *I

BASE
ROOT SECTION

iI \ Y
ROOT SECTION

4 $1
a Base line of root cross-section approximately horizontal. b Base line of root cross-section approximately vertical.
Fig. 9. Vieurs L o o k i q Axially Along a Typical Blah from Tip towards Root Cross-section

CENTRE-OF-FLEXURE

i
41
Y , ,Y
Fig. 10. Cross-section of Asymmetrical Aerofoil Blade Showing Position of the Centroid and Centre-of-jZexure

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882 WILLIAM CARNEGIE

3.5

3.0

25

f 2.0
L?
X
UI
Ln
r
U
z 1.5
I
Q
5
u.

1.0

05

4 5

a Base line of root cross-section approximately horizontal. b Base line of root cross-section approximately vertical.

Fig. 11. Calculated Values of rxLBLand rYLOL

for Aerofoil Cross-section Blades

Table 2. Calculated Values of r,, and ryL for Aerofoil Cross-section Blades; Base Line of Root Cross-section Approximately
Horizontal (Fig.9a)

r x L , inches . . +0.007 60 -0.004 87 -0.016 92 -0.027 83 -0.036 90 -0.043 33

~~

-0.04'1 00
-

{ryL, inches . . -0.047 00 -0.047 27 -0.044 50 -0.038 57 -0.030 08 -0.019 50 -0.007 60

rxL, inches . . +0.007 60 +0.019 50 +0.030 08 +0.038 57 +0.044 50 +0.047 27 $0.047 00
vE { ryL, inches . . -0.047 00 -0.043 33 -0.036 90 -0.027 83 -0.016 92 -0.004 87 +0.007 60

ffLO l o l l 5 30 45 60 75 90
a L + v ~ {pinches
inches
.
.
.
.
+0,047 00
+0.007 60
$0.047 27
-0.004 87
+0.044 50 +0.038 57 +0.030 08 +0.019 50 +0.007 60
yL, -0.016 92 -0'027 83 -0.036 90 -0.043 33 -0.047 00
jrxL, inches
r,,, inches
.
.
.
.
+0'047 00
+0.007 60
+0.043 33
+0.019 50
$0.036 90 +0'027 83 +0.016 92 $0.004 87 -0.007 60
+0.030 08 +0.038 57 +0.044 50 $0.047 27 +0.047 00

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 STATIC BENDING OF PRE-TWISTED CANTILEVER BLADING
negative pre-twist angles aL, since the numerical values of
OL are dependent on the sign of 9.Corresponding values of
r,, and ryL, determined using equations (47a) and (47b),
Appendix 11, are presented in Tables 2 and 3 for both
blade-mounting positions. Additional deflexions (rxLOL)and
(ryLOL)occurring due to asymmetry, whose magnitudes will
also depend on the sign of the pre-twist angle, are given in
Fig. 11. Hence, the total static deflexions (y,+rxLOL)and
(xL+ryLOL) will be dependent on the direction of pre-twist.
Thus, a blade given clockwise pre-twist has slightly
Merent total deflexions from one with anti-clockwise pre-
twist and this will apply generally to blades of asymmetrical
section.
CONCLUSIONS
The measured static deflexions of pre-twisted cantilever
blades of uniform rectangular cross-section, subjected to
lateral concentrated loads at their free ends, confirm the
theoretical approach based on the simple bending theory.
It can, thus, be concluded that a similar treatment will
apply when the loading is uniformly distributed along the
blade length provided that the pre-twist angles do not
exceed the specified range of 0 to 7r/2 radians.
The argument applicable to the above may reasonably be
extended to the calculation of the deflexions and elastic
twists of blades of either rectangular or aerofoil shape.
Hence deflexion formulae for each of these cases can be
determined theoretically.
Where aerofoil blades are of asymmetric form the total
1 / I I
/
Z
4‘
a Before deflexion.
Fig. 12. Short Element of Blade in the UndeJected and Dejected Positions
Downloaded from pme.sagepub.com at Middle East Technical Univ on May 20, 2016
883
deflexions depend on the direction of pre-twist, a clockwise
pre-twist giving different deflexions from an anti-clockwise
one of the same magnitude.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author wishes to record his appreciation to Professor
G. F. Mucklow and Professor F. K. Bannister for permis-
sion to carry out the experimental work in the department
of MechanicalEngineering of the University of Birmingham.
APPENDIX I
G E N E R A L E Q U A T I O N S OF B E N D I N G O F A B L A D E
Fig. 12 shows two views of a short element of a blade at distance z
from the root cross-section. The element of an unloaded blade is
shown in Fig. 12a; after the application of transverse loads, the
distorted element of a deflected blade is shown in Fig. 12b.
Application of the transverse loads on the blade results in bend-
ing moments Mx and My on the face or cross-section of the ele-
ment. The moments, deduced below, act initially in the xz and
y z reference planes respectively and the corresponding local
deflexions are x1 = x and y1 =y, torsion effects being considered
absent.
Before deflexion the longitudinal reference axis through the
centroid of the blade cross-section is zz and the original straight
length of the element is dz. After deflexion the longitudinal
reference axis through the centroid of the cross-section is ss and
the curved length along the line of centroid is ds. The shape of the
cross-section, of area A, is not prescribed. X X and YY are
principal axes inclined at an angle (I to the x l x l and y l y l axes
respectively, principal axes being the two axes at right angles about
which the product moment of area Zxy is zero.
L M y
b After deflexion.
884 WILLIAM CARNEGIE

Adopting the usual assumptions that initially plane sections where X and Y are co-ordinates with reference to the principal
remain plane after bending, the strain e on the longitudinal fibre axes.
BB of area dA, distant a and b from the neutral fibre A A in the
x and y directions respectively, becomes
Hence, since b = X sin a + Y cos a it follows that
Strain e on fibre due to bending = (addl+bdQz)/dz (29) . Ixx = [ r(X2 sin2 a + Y2 cosz a +2XY sin a cos a)dXd Y
J J
where
dx
41 = and 4 2 = 3 dz
. . .
(30) = Zm sin2 a + I n cos2 a+Zxy sin 2a
are the slopes at the element, in the xz and y z planes respectively, and since Zxy, the product moment of area about the principal
of the blade after bending. axes, is zero
For small deflexions the curved length ds of the neutral fibre
differs little from the initial length dz and hence if R1 and R2 are Zw = Zw sin2 a+Zm C O S ~a . . . (42)
the radii of curvature at the element due to bending in the xz and Similarly, with a = X cos a - Y sin a and
yz planes respectively, then
dS = dz = Rid41 = Rzd$z . . .
(31) Iyy = j Aa2dA = 11aZdXdY . . 9 (43)
Hence from equations (29)and (31)the strain e becomes
a b
e = -+-
R i R2
. . .
(32) Y
Thus the stress f on the fibre is
f = Ee = -+-Ea Eb
Ri R2
. . .
(33)
Making use of equations (30)and (31)the following expressions
can be written

X
CENTRE-OFFLEXURE
Substituting expressions (34)into equation (33)

f=Ea(g)+Ebe) . . . (35)
and thus the longitudinal force dF on the fibre is given by -

dF = f d A = Ea (2)
- dA+Eb (-
ZjdA * * (36)
-XI

The moments of the force dF about the axes ylyl and xlxl are
dMx = dFa and dMy = dFb respectively. Thus
dMx = E (2)
- azdA+E (-
2)abdA . . (37a)
and similarly
dMy = E ( g ) b z d A + E ( Z ) a b d A . .
Integration over the blade crow-section gives the total moments
Mx and My on the face of the element, namely,
(37b)

1
3
Y ‘\ ‘Y

My = E Z x x ( g ) + E Z x y ( g ) . . . (38b)
Fig. 13. Geometrical Relationships between Co-ordinate Axes
The total shearing forces on the face of the element are
the following expression can be deduced for Zm,
Fx =-dMx andFy = -
dz
dMY
dz
. . .
(39)
I,, = In cos2 a+Z= sin* a . . . (44)
and thus The product moment of area I , about the reference axes
xlxl andylyl is given by:

Z, = jAabdA = J j a b d X d Y . . . (45)

and on substituting for a and by equation (45)becomes

Zxy = s j ( X sin a+ Y cos a)(X cos a- Y sin a)dXdY
APPENDIX I1
STANDARD RELATIONSHIPS sin a cos a- Y Zsin a cos a + x Y cos2 a
= JJ(x2
Relationrhips Between Iw, Zyy, ,I I= and Iw - X Y sin2 a)dXdY
In Fig. 13 which shows the cross-section of a blade with principal
axes X X and Y Y, = (Zm-Zm) sin OT cos a

Zxx = sA
b2dA = sJb2dXdY . . . (41) Thus Ixy =
(ZYY -I n ) sin Za
2 . . . * (46)

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 STATIC BENDING OF PRE-TWISTED CANTILEVER BLADING 885

Relationships Between rx, ry, rx and ry the gain du,, in the gravitational potential energy of a short element
d z of the blade is
Referring to Fig. 13 the following relationships can be written for
rx and r, dug* = wxldz . . . . . (57)
rx = rx cos a-ry sina . . .
(47a) Allowing for associated twist 0 of the blade, x1 = x+ryO and
ry = rx sin a+ry cos a . . .
(47b) thus
dugx = w(x+ryO)dz . . . .
. (58)
where r, is the distance measured in the y direction between the
centre-of-flexure and the centroid of the unstrained blade.
APPENDIX I11 Over the total length of the blade, the gain ugx in the gravita-
E N E R G Y E Q U A T I O N S OF A B L A D E
tional potential energy is given by
Strain Energy of a Blade Due to Combined Bending-Bending ugX = JIw(x+ryO)dz . . . . (59)
When a blade is subject to simultaneous bending in the xz and y z
reference planes, torsion effects being prevented, the strain energy If, alternatively, the positive y reference direction is arranged
dvb in a short element of length dz is given by vertically upwards, the corresponding increase is
dVb = +Mxd$l++MydQ2 . . . .
(48)
ugy = / ~ w ( y + r x B ) d z . . . . . . (60)
On substituting from equations (34) and (38)
dub = ..(.I..(2)
+E L y ($$)} (2)
dz
where rx is the distance measured in the x direction between the
centre-of-flexure and the centroid of the unstrained blade.
Considering now the gravitational potential energy of a con-
(49) centrated load W, the corresponding relationships are
ugx = Wxl or u, = Wyl . . .
(61)
where XI (or y l ) is the displacement directly under the load.
. . . (50) In the general case of n concentrated loads W1, W2, W,, . ..
at whose points of application the deflections are q l ,~ 1 . 2 , . ..
Thus, the total strain energy of bending
L is as follows
Vb in a blade of length XI.,,, (or for the alternative case ~ 1 . 1 ,y1.2, . ..
yl.,J the relation-
ships are
n=n n=n

. . . (51)
ugx = c W n x l . . or ugy = c W n y l . . . (62)
n=l n=1
Strain Energy of a Blade Due to Torsion
When a blade is in pure torsion about a longitudinal axis parallel Total Potential Energy of a Cantilarer Blade Due to Concentrated
to the zz axis, but not necessarily coincident with it, the strain Load at Free End
energy dvt in a short element of length dz is given by When a cantilever blade is subjected to a concentrated transverse
dvt = &Ted0 . . . . . . (52) load acting at its free end, the total potential energy V consists of
The twisting moment Te is related to an angle of twist 0 and the the strain energy w of the blade plus the gain in potential energy u,
torsional stiffness C by the following expression, namely, of the concentrated load in the gravitational field. Therefore using
equations (56) and (62) and considering the positive x axis of
Te=C(g) . . . . . . (53) reference to be vertically upwards, the total potential energy V is
and on substituting equation (53) into equation (52)
V = w+ugx = ~ + W L X I= . LV + W L ( X L + ~ ~ ~ L ) (63) . .
dvt = f C ( $ ) ( c ) d z = f C ( c ) ' d z . . . . (54)
Thus, for a blade of length L, the total strain energy of torsion dZ+W~(x~+ry0~) . . .
(64)
q is Alternatively considering the positive y axis of reference to be
vertically upwards .the corresponding expression for potential
energy is
Strain Energy of a Blade Due to Combined Bending-Bending- V = w+u, = V + ~ L Y I . L = ~ + W L ( Y L + T X ~ L(65)
) .
Torsion
When torsion occurs simultaneously with bending in the x z and
y z reference planes, the total strain energy w is obtained by ap-
plication of the principle of superposition to equations (51) and
dZ+WL(YL+rxeL) * . . (66)

(551, namely,
. . .
Potential Energy of a Blade Due to Gravitational Forces
When an initially horizontal blade deflects under its own weight,
or under static loads concentrated at points along its length, the
gravitational potential energy decreases.
If only the weight of the blade itself is considered, the deflexion
is that due to a distributed load, of w per unit length, whose line
of action is through the centroid of the blade cross-section. Thus,
if the positive x a x i s of reference is arranged vertically upward,
Total Potential Energy of a Cantilever Blade Due to its Own
Distributed Weight
When a cantilever blade deflects under its own distributed weight,
(56) the total potential energy V consists of the strain energy v of the
blade plus the gain in potential energy ug of the distributed weight
in the gravitational field. Therefore using equations (56) and (59)
and thus considering the positive x axis of reference vertically
upwards, the total potential energy V is

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886
Alternatively, with the positive y axis of reference vertically
upwards, the total potential energy V is the sum of equations (56)
and (60),namely,
APPENDIX I V
N O T E O N C A L C U L U S OF V A R I A T I O N S
The problem of finding points at which functions of one or more
variables possess stationary values is well known. Certain rules are
applied to the equations relating the function to its variables from
which can be ascertained, firstly the co-ordinates of the stationary
points, and secondly whether these points are maxima or minima.
Similarly, the ‘Calculus of Variations’ is concerned with finding
functional forms for which given integrals assume maximum or
minimum values. The ‘First Variation’ enables the stationary
values to be determined; the ‘Second Variation’ states whether
these values are maxima or minima. As in the case of maxima and
minima of functions, many problems arise where only the first
test need be applied, the second being obvious from the nature
of the problem. This is the case throughout the present report.
One of the simpler forms of integrals is of the following type,
namely,
V = ~ ~ g ( e , y , y ‘ ) d z. . . .
where y is a single-valued function of z in the interval (a, b). The
integral may be shown (Forsyth 1927) to be stationary for special
weak variations if y satisfies the differential equation
this being referred to as the Euler characteristic equation.
In order that the first variation shall vanish completely, the
following additional terminal point equation must be satisfied at
each of the limits.
a$
fiW)6Y]:
=0 . . . . .
where Sy is an arbitrary variation of the function y .
If the integrand of equation (69) contains, in addition to y ,
the variables x and 6 and their first derivatives, each functions of z
but independent of one another, then additional characteristic
equations can be written for x and 8, namely,
s - z ( zd ) =34o . . . . .
The terminal point equation for this case, to be satisfied at each
limit separately, is given by
[(3)6~
+ ( g ) S x + (%)SO]: =0
. .
(73)
Sy, 6x and 68 being arbitrary variations of the functions y , x and
8 respectively.
More complex integrals of the following type may occur, that
is,
#(y,y’, y”, x, x’, x”, 8, 8’, 8”, z)dz . .
where x, y and 8 are each functions of z but independent of one
another.
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WILLIAM CARNEGIE
The Euler characteristic equations, specifying stationary condi-
tions for the integral (74), are then of the form
For the first variation to vanish completely the following terminal
point equation must be satisfied at each of the limits
6y, Sx and 68 being, as before, arbitrary variations of the functions
y , x and 0 respectively.
A P P L I C A T I O N T O STATIC PROBLEMS
The calculus of variations can be applied to many problems in
statics, including the problem of bending of blades. The total
potential energy V of the blades in bending, consisting of the
gravitational potential energy u, and the strain energy o, is required.
Equations (66) and (68) of Appendix I11 are examples.
In a conservative system, if the expression for the total potential
energy is stationary then the system is in static equilibrium and if,
(69) in addition, the stationary value is a minimum then the equilibrium
is stable. Thus, since equations (66) and (68) representing the
total potential energy of a blade are integrals, application to them
of the appropriate characteristic equations gives the equations of
static equilibrium. The boundary conditions of the blade must
satisfy the additional terminal point equation at each of the limits
in order that the first variation shall vanish completely. The
second variation, demonstrating the stability of the equilibrium
can be assumed. That is to say the stationary condition established
above, and represented by the equations of static equilibrium, is
taken to be a minimum.
APPENDIX V
D E F I N I T I O N O F CENTRE-OF-FLEXURE
When a cantilever blade is supported rigidly at the root and loaded
at the free end with a concentrated load normal to the longitudinal
axis then, in general, lateral displacement and twist of normal
cross-sections relative to one another will occur. Application of the
load at one particular point in the cross-section will not cause
twist and this point is defined as the ‘Centre-of-Flexure’. When the
blade is subjected to distributed transverse loads the centre-of-
flexure may depend on the load distribution, but for long blades
the dependence will not be appreciable.
APPENDIX VI
REFERENCES
DENHARTOG,
J. P. 1952 ‘Advanced Strength of Materials’, first
edition (McGraw-HilI Book Co., New York, Toronto and
London).
(74) FORSYTH, A. R. 1927 ‘Calculus of Variations’ (Cambridge
University Press, London).
ZICKEL,J. 1955 Jl. Applied Mech., vol. 22, No. 3, p. 348,
‘Bending of Pre-twisted Beams’.
 Communications
Dr. A. D. S. Barr (Graduate) wrote that he felt that the
non-uniform pre-twist necessarily caused by the method of
pre-twisting might account partially for the discrepancy
between theory and experiment shown in Fig. 4. The clamp-
ing of the root during pre-twisting prevented section warp-
ing and resulted in an increase of torsional stiffness so that
the rate of twist would be lower near that section. Similarly,
the rate of twist would decrease near the tip and the maxi-
mum rate would be found near the middle of the beam. The
effect of the lower twist rate near the root was that, for the
load applied vertically, as in Fig. 5a, more of the beam in the
most highly stressed portion was nearer the smaller second
moment of area of the cross-section and the deflections yL
would increase. For the load applied horizontally, as in
Fig. 5b, more of the beam near the root was nearer the
larger second moment of area and the deflections yL would
be decreased as found in Fig. 4b. Similarly for the x-dis-
placement in Fig. 5b, the load W could be resolved along
the X and Y axes and apparently the X-component would
displace the tip less in the X-direction than in the uniform
pre-twist case, while the deflection due to the Y-component
would increase, the consequence of those two effects being
that the x, displacement would decrease. That was, of
course, only a very rough physical argument. The com-
plications introduced in finding y analytically by two
integrations from equation (8) when cc was some simple
non-linear function of z were very great. It would be
interesting if the author could provide figures indicating
how the pre-twist angle cc varied along the experimental
beams. Non-uniform pre-twist could not, of course, account
for the difference between theory and experiment for aL
zero.
The calculations shown in Fig. 8 for a non-symmetric
section were interesting, particularly in the indication of the
difference in the angular deflection for clockwise and anti-
clockwise pre-twists.
The author considered the non-symmetric blades to be
pre-twisted about the line joining all the centroids of cross-
sections. In that case the line containing all the shear centres
or flexural centres would not be straight but would describe
a helix about the axis of centroids. As a consequence, it
would not generally be possible to apply a force to the beam
without twisting it somewhere. That feature made the
independent treatment of bending and torsion, as used in
Appendix 111, invalid. Appendix 111, however, was valid
ifthe axis of pre-twist contained all the shear centres, that is,
if the axis of pre-twist was the A exural axis, because in that
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case, a force acting on the centroid of a cross-section would
be equivalent to an equal force acting on the flexural axis
along with a pure couple. Thus the general flexure problem
would be resolved into a simple flexure problem and a
torsion problem. In practice, if the aerofoil section blading
was pre-twisted in the manner shown in Fig. 2, the axis of
twist would coincide with the Aexural axis, not with the line
of centroids.
Mr. J. Dunham, B.A. (Graduate), wrote that the key to
the paper appeared to be in the reference in the ‘Intro-
duction’ to an associated paper, to be issued later, on
the vibration of twisted blades. Considered by itself,
the theoretical analysis was surprising. It started with the
derivation of equations (38a) and (38b). From them, the
energy of the blade was calculated in Appendix 111. The
Calculus of Variations was then employed to establish from
the energy expression equations (4a), (4b), (17a), and (17b),
which were identical with equations (38a) and (38b). The
use of energy had only led back to the original starting
point. The energy method was presumably described
because it was later needed in the vibration analysis.
The method used to find the centre of flexure of an
aerofoil, referred to on p. 881, and both the theoretical and
experimental work on the vibration problem, would be of
great interest to engineers working on compressor blade
vibration.
Mr. E. L. Johnson, BSc. (Graduate), wrote that it
appeared that the paper was somewhat incomplete and
could be considered only as an introductory article to a
series of papers to be published some time in the future and,
unfortunately, the author had not gone far enough in the
paper to enable much comment to be made. It would,
perhaps, have been better if publication had been delayed
until the work was complete and then a comprehensive
report could have been written.
Concerning those results which were quoted, the author
had stated on p. 878 that ‘a reasonable measurement of
agreement exists between the measured and theoretical
deflections’. He wondered whether the author really con-
sidered a 10per cent discrepancybetween the calculated and
measured deflections for an untwisted blade as shown in
Fig. 4a to be satisfactory, especially since the theoretical
variation between blades of 0” and 90” twist was only of
the order of 25-30 per cent. The corresponding discrepancy
for the blade having a twist of 90” was 20 per cent.
888
From comments on pp. 878 and 879 it would appear that
some difficulty had been experienced in measuring the
deff ections. He wondered whether improved instrumenta-
tion techniques would give better correlation between
calculated and experimental values.
He was interested to note on p. 883 that, for an asym-
metric section in which the centre-of-flexure was displaced
fiom the centre of gravity, a blade having a clockwise pre-
twist had slightly different total deflections from one with
anti-clockwise pre-twist, and in that connection Figs. 8
and 11 were extremely stimulating; the paper would be of
much more value, however, if the author could give some
indication, not only of the tip deflections but also of the
deflection curve along the length of a blade having a given
pre-twist, for example, for aL = 15” or 30” and with the
base line of the root cross-section approximately horizontal.
He wondered whether the author had any experimental
results for blades of aerofoil section and, if so, whether the
experimental and calculated values were in better agreement
than in the case of flat blades.
Dr. L. Maunder (Graduate) wrote that an interesting
result of the paper was the comparison between experi-
mental and calculated deflections shown in Fig. 4. Since
equations (11) and (12b), on which the calculations were
based, followed directly from beam theory, the author had
rightly pointed to certain factors introduced by pre-twist,
but absent from beam theory, which could account in part
for differences between theoretical and experimental results.
Some of those factors had been analysed by Zickel(l955).
Another, applicable to the type of thin rectangular cross-
section considered, had been determined in a recent paper
by Reissner and himself (1957)*. It consisted of an inter-
action between normal bending displacements and the
anti-clastic distortions of cross-sections, the latter having the
same form as those which occurred in the bending of un-
twisted beams. For the case of pure bending, it had been
shown that the effect of that interaction on deflections could
be expressed in terms of an ‘equivalent’ bending stiffness of
the cross-section about its ‘stiff’ principal axis (EIyy of
Fig. 5a), and also that, within the limits of the theory, the
bending stiffness of the cross-section about its ‘flexible’
principal axis was unaffected by pre-twist. The equivalent
‘stiff‘ bending stiffness was a decreasing function of pre-
twist, and hence a pre-twisted beam of the type considered
would be found to be more flexible than would be predicted
by ordinary beam theory. For loading involving variable
bending moments, the result could not be expressed so
simply, and anti-clastic distortions could either increase or
decrease the effective bending stiffness of a cross-section,
depending on the bending moment variation. Strain
measurements taken by himself during pure bending tests
of a steel strip had verified that anti-clastic distortions
occurred in a pre-twisted beam, even when its cross-section
was as thin as 2* in. x & in.
* Maunder, L., and Reissner, E. 1957 Jl. Mech. Phys. Solids,
val. 5, p . 261, ‘Pure Bending of Pretmited Rectangular Plates’.
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COMMUNICATIONS
The change in stiffness caused by anti-clastic distortions
was not likely, however, to account for the differences in
Fig. 4a, as may be illustrated by assuming that the equivalent
‘stiff)bending stiffness of the cross-section of the pre-twisted
beam had the extremely low value of 50 per cent of the
corresponding quantity for an otherwise identical un-
twisted beam. It followed from equations (11) and (12)
that the tip deflections xLand yL would be changed at a
representative pre-twist angle aL of 45” by only -0.4 per
cent and +0.02 per cent, respectively, of the values shown
in Fig. 4a. Furthermore, the greater part of the differences
shown in that figure occurred at zero pre-twist and must
therefore have been due to other causes. Deflections larger
than predictions could sometimes be ascribed to experi-
mental causes such as stress concentrations or elastic
deformations of supporting structures and, although care
had been taken to avoid such contingencies, it would be
difficult to eliminate them altogether. Deflections smaller
than predictions, as shown in Fig. 4b, were less common.
Anti-clastic distortions would have a much greater effect
there than on the deflections in Fig. 4a and could have
contributed more significantly to the apparent increase in
stiffness.
In connection with the expressions involving -torsional
stiffness, it seemed worth while to point out that as reported
by Den Hartog (1952) it had been shown by Chen Chu that
the torsional stiffness as determined in pure torsion of a
thin-walled pre-twisted beam was a rapidly increasing
function of pre-twist. That conclusion had explained some
important practical results, one of which was that a beam
without constraints at its ends could be pre-twisted
uniformly, simply by applying torsional couples at the ends,
but that to untwist uniformly a pre-twisted beam required
additional constraints at intermediate points.
Professor B. G. Neal, M.A., Ph.D., A.M.I.C.E., wrote
that the derivation of the static deflection relationships given
by the author appeared to be unnecessarily complicated, as
the results could be obtained far more quickly by elemen-
tary theory. To illustrate that point, consider the case of a
pre-twisted cantilever subjected to a concentrated load
acting vertically at the free end. Initially, consider only the
effect of the ffexibiLity of an element of length dz at a
distance z from the clamped end, where the pre-twist was
to an angle a = (z/L)aLwith the horizontal (Fig. 5a but
with a replacing aL).In the usual way, the bending moment
due to the load W was split into the two components
W(L-z) cos a, causing bending about the principal axis
XX,and W(L-z) sin a,causing bending about the principal
axis YY. The f i s t of those components caused a change of
slope of W(L-z) cos adz/EI, in the element dz, and hence
a deflection component W(L-z)2 cos adz/EI, in the YY
plane which was inclined at an angle of a to the vertical.
Similarly, the second of those components caused a
ddection component W(L-z)2 sin adz/EI, in the XX
plane.
Resolving those deflection components in the vertical
and horizontal directions, and then integrating over the
 STATIC BENDING OF PRE-TWISTED CANTILEVER BLADING
length of the cantilever, it followed at once that the upward
deflectionyLand the lateral deflection x, were given by
from which the results given in equations (11) and (12b)
followed at once.
Turning to the experimental results, it was noticeable
that no attempt was made to confirm whether or not the
clamping arrangements for the cantilevers were fully effec-
tive. In fact, it was a common experience that it was
impossible to secure complete clamping of a member;
instead there was always a high, but not iniinite, degree of
restraint against rotation when heavy clamping blocks such
as those used by the author were employed. The additional
deflections thus caused could often be surprisingly high,
and it was suggested that experiments of that kind were
incomplete unless rotations of the clamping blocks were
carefully measured. For vertical loading the effect would be
that the observed vertical deflections would be fictitiously
high while the horizontal deflections would be unaltered,
and that provided a qualitative explanation of the results
shown in Fig. 4a. However, for horizontal loading the
observed horizontal deflections would be fictitiously high
while the vertical deflections would be unaltered, and so the
discrepancies in Fig. 4b could not be due to that effect alone.
Dr. H.Nuttall, B.Sc. (Associate Member), and Mr. F.A.
Gaydon, M.Sc. (Bristol), wrote that the experimental
results of the paper were most interesting, particularly in
view of the promised subsequent report which was to
treat the very complex problem of the vibration of pre-
twisted blades.
One point which was not clarified was concerned with the
value of the elastic modulus used in calculating deflections,
when working with pre-twisted blades. The value which
should be used was that of the metal after work-hardening
due to pre-twist. If the blades had not been annealed, the
value of the elastic modulus of the material might wed be
reduced by 8 or 10 per cent. That would also have an
important bearing on any theoretical calculation concerned
with the frequency of vibration of such blades.
Mr. H.A. Slyper, B.Sc. (Associate Member), wrote that
he had been engaged on a research programme associated
with the vibrations of twisted cantilever beams at Imperial
College, London.
He noted from Fig. 2 that the author had pre-twisted the
specimens by hand. He himself had been performing the
pre-twisting operation in a torsion-testing machine, which
permitted a better control over the actual amount of pre-
twist and also retained the longitudinal centre-line of each
specimen normal to the centroid of the section at its fixed
point. An indication by the author of the degree of out-of-
alignment from the longitudinal centre-line and the actual
value of the torsional stiffness C for the specimens tested
would therefore be useful additional information.
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889
It would also be interesting to ascertain the method the
author had used to check whether each cantilever was truly
encastred, as any pre-twist in the clamped end of the speci-
men might possibly reduce the rigidity of the fixing and
thereby create errors in the deflection reading when the
specimen was placed under load. That might have con-
tributed to some of the 10 per cent error between the
experimental and theoretical results shown by the author
in Fig. 4a and b. A correlation between the deflections (or
preferably the slopes dx/dz and dy/dz) of various sections
and the position of the section along the cantilever length
would have given evidence of any such distortion of the
fixing. That would have been particularly useful in the
case of the beam having the maximum degree of pre-twist
as it would have given greater support to the validity of the
theory incorporated in the paper and would have given an
indication of whether a correction was necessary to allow
for the inclination of the fibres and for lateral moments.
The derivation of the differential equations from first
principles was good engineering practice although for that
preliminary work it was thought the method of solution
could have been simplified by considering a section distant z
from the fixed end and then resolving the bending moments
due to the horizontal and vertical loadings parallel to the
principal axes of the section. Referring to Fig. 5a but replac-
ing aLby the general angle of pre-twist a and also applying
a horizontal force P in the positive x-direction and a vertical
force W in the positive y-direction, the bending moments
acting on a section could then have been written as
bending moment about the X - a x i s
= Ma = -P(L-x) sin a- ~ ( L - z )cos
bending moment about the YY-axis
= M , = P(L-Z) cos a+W(L-z) sin
The familiar strain-energy equation could then have been
written as
where a = zz aL.
That equation could then be differentiated, giving the
solutions
au L3 2a,- sin 2%
aW EI,
w(*+2aL-sin 2a,
"{
EI, 8aL3
890 COMMUNICATIONS

au L.3 2a,2- +
1 cos 2a, which would be functions of the pre-twist angle a. The
ar EI,, 801~3 opinion of the author on those alternative methods would
be of interest.
It was at first sight disturbing that the equations derived
in the author's paper and those above for the deflections at
"'{ the free end of the cantilever were apparently indeterminate
for the special case of angle of pre-twist a, being zero. That
EIXX difficultycould have been overcome by the substitution of
a power series for sin 201, and cos 2~3,i.e.

These equations could be reduced to those given in

I,* = -*n2
-
equations (12a) and (12b) on substituting W for W and
p = 0 and -
IYY m2
An alternative method of solution which was suitable for
the more general application to the pre-twisted tapered
cantilever beams used in turbine and compressor blading
was by the use of a numerical integration process based on
equation (9) as given by the author for the displacement in
the y-direction and by a corresponding equation in the
direction. In the modified equations I , and I,, would then
refer to the moments of inertia at the section considered,
cos 2a, = 1-- (2ULI2
2!
+--(2.L4!I4 ...
With the angle of pre-twist aL equated to zero in the re-
constituted equations it could be shown that the equations
did reduce to the standard form for the defiection of a
uniform cantilever.
The conclusion had been reached by the author that the
theory was suitable for pre-twists in the range 0 to ~ [ 2
radians. He felt that that conclusion should be qualified by
an indication of the rate of pre-twist (ctJL) for a given
'slenderness ratio' or its equivalent.

Downloaded from pme.sagepub.com at Middle East Technical Univ on May 20, 2016

Author’s Reply
Dr. W. Carnegie wrote, in reply to the communications,
that he thanked all the contributors to the discussion for
their helpful suggestions, which enhanced the value of the
paper..
In reply to Dr. Barr, non-uniform pre-twist might well
explain, in part, the discrepancies between the theoretical
and experimental results of Fig. 4 as shown by the physical
argument put forward. At the time of carrying out the
experiments, however, the non-linearity in pre-twist had
been measured and found to be small; its effect on the blade
deflexions was, thus, considered to be unimportant. No
records had been kept of the non-linearity measurements
but, since the blades were still available, the information
could easily be determined if required. Admittedly the
complication of solving equation (8) analytically, for a blade
with non-linear pre-twist, was great but, on the other hand,
a graphical solution would be relatively straightforward. It
could be shown, theoretically, that lateral moments were
acting on the pre-twisted blades due to fibre inclination and
those moments also influenced the blade deflexions in a
manner consistent with the experimental observations.
Experimental or theoretical confirmation of the magnitude
by which the blade deflexions were affected due to that
cause presented an exceptionally difficult problem.
Regarding the question of correct axis about which to
pre-twist asymmetric blades, the most convenient one to
choose in practice, was the line of centroids due, primarily,
to the difficulty of determining the centre-of-flexure. I t
should be pointed out that the centre-of-flexure (flexural
centre) and the centre-of-torsion (shear centre) need not
necessarily be coincident, although they were generally
assumed to be so. Duncan, Ellis, and Scruton (1933)* had
dealt with this problem for blades symmetrical about one
axis and unsymmetrical about the other and they had
concluded that, provided the blades were long and the roots
* Duncan, W. J., Ellis, D.L., and Scruton, C. 1933 Phil. Mag.,
Series 7, vol. 16, No.104, p . 201, ‘The Flexural Centre and the
Centre-of-twist of an Elastic Cylinder’.
Downloaded from pme.sagepub.com at Middle East Technical Univ on May 20, 2016
891
rigid or nearly rigid, the centre-of-flexure must be, at least,
nearly coincident with the centre-of-torsion. His own experi-
ments for aerofoil blades showed that the two points,
although not coincident, were nearly so. Hence, for strict
accuracy, Appendix I11 was clearly correct only when the
blades were pre-twisted about the line of centre-of-flexure.
For pre-twists about other axes in the vicinity the treatment
should, however, be a close enough approximation if elastic
twist was considered to take place about the centre-of-
flexure, which seemed a reasonable assumption to make.
It would be interesting to examine the effect on blade
vibrations of change of pre-twist axis, coupled modes,
especially, might be considerably affected.
Mr. Dunham had asked why the energy method had been
chosen for that particular problem. The chief reason for the
choice of the variational method was that it provided a very
powerful and general method of approach to the analysis of
both static and dynamic systems possessing infinite numbers
of degrees of freedom, i.e. systems with continuously
distributed mass and flexibility, which had certain advan-
tages over other methods. For static systems, such as the
blade example given, it specified, automatically, the
additional boundary conditions (MyL,FYL,etc.) necessary to
obtain a complete solution of the problem. Those could
be determined by other means in the case of the blade but
the method might well find application to more complex
problems where the boundary terms were not so readily
obtained. In the dynamics of ‘continuous’ systems it could
be regarded as a natural extension of the Lagrangian method
applicable to systems with finite numbers o f degrees of free-
dom. By application of ‘Hamilton’s Principle’ to the expres-
sion L = T- V , where T and V had the usual meanings of
kinetic and potential energy, the equations of motion of the
system could be derived.
The experimental method used to determine the centre-
of-flexure and centre-of-torsion was an extension of the
work of Duncan, Ellis, and Scruton, referred to above, to
the case of a blade asymmetrical about both principal axes
892
and a comprehensive description of those tests was given in
Carnegie (1956)*. It was hoped to publish complete details
of the vibration tests and the associated theoretical work in
the near future.
He agreed with Mr. Johnson that a comprehensive report
covering all the work would, in certain cases, be an advan-
tage. In that instance the amount of work to be covered was
considerable and it was possible to make a natural division.
The present paper was complete inasmuch as it covered the
static problem of bending and, as stated above, it was hoped
to publish a concluding report dealing with the rest of the
work in the near future.
The agreement shown between the theoretical and experi-
mental results for the yL deflexions in Fig. 4a was by no
means as good as it might have been and could not, there-
fore, be regarded as entirely satisfactory. If, however, the
theoretical curve was raised to coincide with either of the
experimental ones at 0 deg. pre-twist, thus eliminating
errors due to unaccounted factors independent of pre-twist
(for example, the values of the modulus of elasticity or
second moments of area might be in error), the situation
was then much improved, sufficiently so to justify the
extension of the treatment to a blade where the, loading was
distributed uniformly.
Considerable care was taken with the initial setting of
the apparatus before readings were taken. Special attention
was given to the alignment of the blades and the positioning
of the dial gauges and travelling microscope. The possibility
of experimental errors could not, however, be entirely over-
looked, and any suggestions for improvements in measuring
techniques would be much appreciated.
The fact that the static deflexions of blades depended on
the sign of the pre-twist angle was extremely interesting
since it could be concluded that the dynamic deflexions
would be, similarly, dependent on the direction of the pre-
twist. Hence, the frequencies of normal modes of vibration,
especially coupled modes, would be dependent on the
magnitude of the pre-twist angle and also its direction. The
theoretical deflexion curves along the length of the blade,
for any of the cases considered, could be determined, if
required, without great difficulty since general expressions
for x and y (and 0) were readily deduced from the initial
equations.
No experimental results had been obtained for the static
bending of aerofoil cross-section blades. It had not been
considered worth while to repeat tests with concentrated
loads, and the application of a distributed static load to a
blade presented a number of difficulties, especially when it
was a pre-twisted one.
Mr. Maunder’s work on the pure bending of pre-twisted
rectangular plates was extremely interesting and introduced
yet another factor to be accounted for in obtaining a com-
plete solution of that complex problem. He was especially
interested in the strain measurements made on thin steel
strip in pure bending where it had been shown that anti-
* Carnegie, W. 1956 ‘A Theoretical and Experimental Study of the
Static and Dynamic Behaviow of Pre-twisted Turbine and Com-
pressor Blading’ (University of Birmingham Library).
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AUTHOR’S REPLY
clastic bending occurred. That could be due to the lateral
moments, referred to earlier, whose action would be to bend
the pre-twisted blade laterally into a concavo-convex shape
resembling that due to anti-clastic bending. The effect could
be shown to be dependent on the orientation of the blade
root cross-section in relation to the direction of application
of the load. For the blade mounted and loaded as shown
in Fig. 5a the usual anti-clastic bending effect was increased.
Transverse blade fibres on, or near, the upper broad face
were, thereby, further compressed and the corresponding
longitudinal fibres became more extended. The opposite
effect will occur on and near to the lower broad face, that is
to say, the longitudinal fibres would be shortened due to
the additional extension of the transverse ones. As a result,
the actual blade deflexions would be increased, compared
with the calculated deflexions based on the simple bending
theory,in the manner shown in Fig. 4a. In the case of the
blade mounted and loaded as shown in Fig. 5b the lateral
moments were of opposite sign, with the result that the
actual blade deflexions were reduced, compared with the
calculated deflexions, as shown in Fig. 4b. A short abstract
dealing with that work was to be published by himself in
the near future.
The torsional stiffness values had been calculated by an
equation similar in form to the one by Chen Chu but
developed by himself using a somewhat different approach.
The problem was treated in a more general way by con-
sidering a blade in which the centroid and centre-of-torsion
were not coincident. The fact that a blade could be pre-
twisted without constraints but not untwisted again was also
very interesting. Such behaviour would, clearly, be restricted
to thin blades. When a straight blade, constrained at its ends
to prevent warping of plane cross-sections, was pre-twisted
it underwent a contraction in length. Thus, in the case of a
rectangular cross-section blade, longitudinal fibres, at or
near to a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal centre-lines
of the broad faces, were in compression; longitudinal fibres
at or near to the outside edges, i.e. the narrow faces, were
in tension. The outside fibres being in tension, and thus
stable, would constrain the inner ones against buckling.
When a pre-twisted blade, similarly constrained, was un-
twisted without additional constraints along its length,
however, buckling could be expected in the outside fibres
since being in compression they were, thereby, unstable.
The method used by Professor Neal to obtain the tip
deflexions, yL and x,, was a quick and useful one but the
advantage of the more general approach was that expres-
sions for the deflexions x and y, applicable to any point on
the blade, could be obtained. General expressions for the
static deflexions with length were of use in determining
blade frequencies by Rayleigh‘s method. The reason for the
choice of the variational method in deducing the initial
equations had already been given in the reply to Mr.
Dunham, although he appreciated that other and, perhaps,
somewhat more direct methods of deriving the deflexion
equations were available. The equations given by Professor
Neal could, with slight modification, be extended to the
general case or, alternatively, by use of the components of
 STATIC BENDING OF PRE-TWISTED CANTILEVER BLADING
bending moment, W(L-z) cos a and W(L-z) sin a, it
followed that the changes of slope in the Yz and Xz
principal planes of the blade were W(L-2) cos adz/EI,
and W(L-z) sin adz/EI, respectively. Thus, the corre-
sponding component changes of slopes in the ylz plane be-
came
- W(L-z) C O S ~adz/EIxx and - W(L-2) sin2 a&/EI,,,
which gave a total change of slope in the y l z plane of
+ the rectangular cross-section specimens, but in the dynamic
d42 = -
Y, cos2 a Z, sin2 a)W(L- z)
E4XA-Y
which was in agreement with equation (8) for the con-
Idz
centrated load system. Similarly, the component changes of
slope in the xlz plane were W(L-z) sin a cos adz/EI,
and - W(L-z) sin a cos ordz/EI, and, thus, the total
change of slope in the xlz plane was given by
(ZYY -ZXX)W(L-z) sin 2a
= [ 2Ef,IYy 1 dz
Hence, general equations for the x and y deflexions could
be deduced by double integration as before.
An important step in the solution of the initial equations,
for example, equations (5a) and (5b), by the method in the
paper was contained in the fact that ( I J , , - Z X y ~ )= I,Zw.
He had met the left-hand side of that expression several
times in literature where its equivalence to the product of
the two principal second moments of area appeared to have
been overlooked.
Tests had been made on the clamping block to check its
effectiveness against rotation during vertical loading. A
sensitive dial-gauge with its spindle vertical and in contact
with the top of the clamping block assembly, showed no
change of reading during application of the load. The test
was carried out several times and at a number of points
over the surface of the block and clamp. The dial gauge
was mounted on a stand supported on the heavy cast-iron
lathe bed foundation carrying the clamping block assembly.
It had been thought not to be likely that the lathe bed
would distort since the blades were of thin cross-section
and the loads applied were small. Tests to detect rotation
of the block during horizontal load application had not been
considered necessary since, with the arrangement used, it
was suggested that any rotation of the clamping block in a
horizontal plane would be unlikely to occur.
One effect of clamping, not previously mentioned, would
be to prevent anti-clastic bending of cross-sections at and
near the root of the blade, thus causing a reduction in the
deflexions compared with the values determined by simple
beam theory.
Dr. Nuttall and Mr. Gaydon had pointed out that an 8-
10 per cent reduction in the elastic modulus could occur
between the material being in the annealed state and after
cold working due to pre-twist. The blades had not been
annealed after pie-twisting since they had, in fact, been cut
from lengths of cold-rolled mild-steel strip. Hence, the
change in modulus caused by additional working due to
pre-twisting would not be appreciable. Further, the elastic
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893
modulus used in the calculations had been determined from
a tensile test conducted on a section of the rolled steel
material.
Like Mr. Slyper, he had also been engaged in a pro-
gramme of research concerned with the vibrations of pre-
twisted cantilever blading. It would be most interesting to
make a comparison between the two investigations and the
conclusions deduced.
The method of pre-twisting by hand was satisfactory for
work, where aerofoil cross-section blading had been tested,
a special rig had been constructed to perform the operation.
Attempts to pre-twist blading of asymmetrical cross-section
by hand had resulted in the specimens bending about the
longitudinal axis as would be expected. A pointer-gauge,
mounted on the lathe bed foundation, had been traversed
along the longitudinal centre-lines of the rectangular cross-
section blades to check the alignment and any out-of-
alignment observed was easily corrected. Values of torsional
stiffness would be given in the concluding report dealing
with the dynamic tests.
The blades had been securely gripped at both ends
during pre-twisting and any possibility of distortion of the
thin cross-sections occurring under the clamps had been
considered most unlikely. A measurement of the deflexions,
or preferably the slopes of the various cross-sections along
the lengths of the blades would have provided additional
useful information, and further work on those lines might
well be contemplated, although such an investigation would
be of an extended character.
The use of Castigliano's first theorem provided another
quick method of obtaining the tip deflexions of the con-
centrated load system. General deflexion expressions could
be determined by introduction of a Ioad dong the blade
at an intermediate point, that load being made zero after
differentiation of the strain energy expression with respect
to it. The method could also be applied to a blade subjected
to a uniformly distributed load. In his view the method to
be used in determining deflexions of pre-twisted tapered
beams, of the type used for turbine and compressor blading,
was largely a matter of personal choice. Numerical integra-
tion of equations for (d2y/dzZ),for example, equation (9) in
the case of the concentrated load system, and (dZx/dzz) was
probably the most direct method of dealing with the prob-
lem. A very useful alternative to numerical integration and
one which could also be accurate and quick, was to use a
graphical method of solution. Bending-moment diagrams
for any system of loading could easily be obtained by means
of a link polygon and, making due allowance for the varia-
tions of I,, I,, and a with z, the functions (d2yid.2) and
(dZx/dz2) could be plotted along the length of the blade.
By use of the link polygon method a double integration of
the plotted curves could be carried out in one step giving
the blade deflexions x and y directly. The method quoted of
treating the indeterminate case of aL = 0, by use of a power
series for sin 2 q and cos 2a,, was a useful alternative to the
one given by himself and probably somewhat quicker to
apply.
894 AUTHOR’S REPLY

Since the tests were not of a comprehensive nature it was be of considerable importance in short thin blades of broad
not possible to state any general conclusions and the ones cross-section, where for a 90-deg. pre-twist the rate of
given in the paper must, obviously, be confined to the pre-twist (aJL) would be large, was the influence of shear
dimensions of the bIades considered. One factor likely to on the deflexions; that might well be considerable.

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