Downloaded from http://jgs.lyellcollection.

org/ at University of California-San Diego on December 19, 2016

Journal of the GeologicalSociety, London, Vol. 150, 1993, pp. 801-809, 3 figs. Printed in Northern Ireland

Volume 150 Celebration Paper

Structure and origin of limestones

B. W. SELLWOOD
Postgraduate Research Institute for Sedimentology, The University, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 2AB, UK

Abstract: Sorby's Presidential Address of 1897 on the structure and origin of limestones was
essentially an interim report of research in progress. His petrographic approach to limestones,
stemming from three decades of research, laid the foundations for a wide range of research lines,
some of which were not fully exploited for almost a century, such as fluid inclusion studies in
diagenesis. The significance of many of his discoveries (e.g. that some Jurassic ooids and Palaeozoic
corals were originally calcitic) had geochemical implications that have only recently achieved research
prominence (e.g. CO2 and the 'greenhouse' Earth). In addition, Sorby's legacy was the example of his
peerless approach to research, applying ruthless empiricism to the problem at hand. In the case of
limestones, this involved an application of meticulous descriptive petrography and innovative ex-
perimentation. His approach to understand more fully the complex problems posed by carbonates
remains unsurpassed, involving a thorough integration of detailed observation, imaginative thinking
and judicious use of analytical techniques.

By the time of his monumental Anniversary Address, as
President of the Geological Society of London in 1879,
Henry Clifton Sorby had researched for more than 30 years
upon 'various questions essential to the proper elucidation'
of the structure and origin of limestones, and yet he felt
'painfully conscious how much still remains to be learned'.
His 1879 Address is rightly regarded as a landmark, seminal
to much later research on the petrography of limestones.
The strength of Sorby's work came from the lucidity of
his deductive reasoning based upon a wealth of detailed
observations and a wide range of experiments. And all this
from a wealthy amateur who received no formal university
training and never held a geological post. Folk (1972)
regarded reading Sorby's Address of 1879 a being almost
like reading the Bible. Sollas (1909) drew analogy between
Sorby and Faraday, noting that both these great men had
published their first scientific contributions on the analysis of
'a piece of lime'.
Sorby's discourse had not been spontaneously generated.
It drew upon his own vast observational experience, his
invention of techniques, and his adaptation of methods
developed by others. Of the utmost significance was the
method of preparing thin transparent slices of rocks and
minerals, devised around 1830 by William Nicol and first
described in Witham (1831). Indeed, shortly before Sorby's
death, at the age of 81, Geikie (1908)paid glowing tribute
to his pioneering works on optical petrography which,
Geikie proclaimed, had transformed petrography from the
neglected branch of geology to 'the dignity of an almost
independent science'. The Geological Society of London,
according to Geikie, could take pride in the fact that Sorby
had announced the birth of optical petrography 'within our
walls'. He was referring not merely to Sorby's first paper,
published in the Quarterly Journal in 1851, but to a series of
papers published over the next eight years culminating in an
epoch-making demonstration (Sorby 1858) of the applica-
tion of optical microscopy to rock description, and to the
801
interpretation of rock genesis. This masterpiece, although
setting out to prove whether particular crystalline materials
were deposited from solution in water or from igneous
fusions, also laid the foundations for fluid-inclusion analysis
which today is a major technique in diagenetic studies.
His last paper (Sorby 1908), published posthumously by
the Society, underlined the importance of quantification in
rock studies. By applying experimental physics to the study
of rocks he also realized that results obtained on artificial
and pure end-members would only approximately relate to
the complex systems of the real world. Nonetheless, he
attempted to determine the porosity of a wide variety of
rocks, including many limestones, using both optical and
boiling water techniques. These techniques are now both
outmoded, the one involving the weighing-out of com-
ponents scrupulously drawn on card from a camera-lucida
projection, the other measuring the loss in weight of an
artificially water-saturated sample. But the important thing
was Sorby's visionary appreciation of what each method
showed. The petrographic method gave an evaluation of
how the rock had been changed by the emplacement of
cement, whereas the water-porosity method measured the
porosity 'as it now exists'. The former thus permitted
quantification of parageneses, the latter provided practical
data; the stuff of petrophysics.
Sorby was a great empiricist. Cemented shell sands from
a Quaternary raised beach near Torquay were described
alongside samples from Bermuda and the deep-sea
Challenger Expedition. He knew that limestones had the
potential to form in a wide range of settings, and that they
were not just tropical in origin. But researches into modern
carbonate environments have, since the earliest regional
investigations, such as those of the Bahamas (Agassiz 1894,
1896) and Florida (Vaughan 1910), concentrated on tropical
areas. Only over the past few years have temperate-water
carbonates been seriously studied (e.g. Chave 1967; Lees &
Buller 1972; Nelson 1988). However, it is now realized that
 Downloaded from http://jgs.lyellcollection.org/ at University of California-San Diego on December 19, 2016
802 B. W. S E L L W O O D
such calcite-dominated carbonates may be more com-
parable, in both mineralogical and diagenetic terms, with
some of the carbonate systems of the past (James & Bone
1989, 1991). A Sorby-like approach might have brought this
realization 70 years earlier.
The last section of his Address consists mostly of
descriptions of the major British limestones and it would be
appropriate at this point to refer to British monographs,
following up Sorby's works, comparable with those
produced in France by Cayeux (1929, 1935); but there are
none. Cayeux (1935) makes brief reference to Sorby's
works, referring to his discussion of the origin of
concretions, dolomite, ooids and cone-in-cone structure. In
contrast, the mighty works of Murray & Renard (1891) from
the H.M.S. Challenger expedition, and the results of the
Funafuti boring (e.g. Judd 1904) are prolifically cited. It is
curious to note that Sorby is himself a little short (3~ lines,
p. 77) in dealing with deep-sea sediments, stating that so
much attention had been paid by others (presumably a
reference to the Challenger scientists, Murray and Renard)
to deep-sea sediments that he would use his time describing
less well known subjects, such as the Tertiary limestones of
the Isle of Wight, and the Chalk!
I have organized this tribute to Sorby broadly in the
manner of his own address, and with some of his own
headings. Within sections I have attempted to show some of
the modern derivatives of his research and a few of the
significant intervening works. This has had to be a very
selective procedure. In place of an account of British
limestones (which comprises the last 18 pages of Sorby's
Address), I chart some of the post-Sorby developments in
the study of the origin of limestones, and briefly consider
some possible future trends. Sorby excluded a general
discussion of dolomitic rocks from his Address, and so I
have omitted dolomites from this review.
Microscopical structure and mineral nature of shells
Sorby's 1879 Address begins with a bold overview:
'Limestones, being mainly derived from broken-up and
decayed shells and corals, it is in the first place necessary to
understand the structure and mineral constitution of modern
calcareous organisms'. It is a fitting tribute to this approach
that Bathurst's (1971) masterwork also begins with the
petrography of skeletal materials.
Before Sorby, the detailed microscopical character of
modern shells had been researched from the biological
viewpoint by Carpenter (1844, 1847). In addition, Sorby
measured hardness and specific gravity, and used optical
petrographic techniques (e.g. determining optic figures
etc.), to become the first to document which shells were
aragonitic and which were calcitic. In most cases, and
without the special help afforded by stains (Friedman 1959;
Dickson 1966) and X-ray diffraction techniques available
today, his determinations closely match those currently
accepted (Tucker & Wright 1990). He noted the similarities
between the skeletal structure of crabs and those of
trilobites. He comments on how the peculiar fibrous
structure of Sepia might 'have interest in connexion with the
fossilization of Belemnites', and he was particularly struck
by the intimate interrelationship between mineral and
organic structure in the calcitic hard-parts of echinoderms.
'Each plate, each spine and each joint of a single crystal of
calcite, having its principal axis perpendicular to the plane
of the plate, or parallel to the axis of the spine or j o i n t . . .
in perfect crystalline continuity'. Such fragments were usually
cemented by singly-crystalline overgrowths of calcite
optically continuous with the host grain. Microtexture, as
well as mineralogy, strongly influence preservation potential
in carbonate grains, not only of petrographic detail, but also
of geochemical signals useful today in diagenetic or
palaeotemperature investigations (e.g. Marshall 1992).
Influence of original mineral constitution on
preservation
Sorby was the first to realize that mineralogy and structure
had an impact on the mechanical durability and preservation
potential of shells, having already noted (Sorby 1862) that
during weathering aragonite shells selectively dissolve,
whereas calcitic shells are more stable. His experiments
(e.g. keeping shells at 145 °C in the boiler of a high-pressure
steam-engine for a month) had shown that, upon heating,
aragonite could convert to calcite but he did not 'know of
any process by means of which calcite can be changed into
aragonite'. It is also clear that he had realized the full
significance of finding well-preserved calcitic fossils as-
sociated with 'the mere casts of others', having related his
observations on modern skeletal materials to fossil
counterparts. He observed that when an originally
aragonitic shell is changed to calcite it 'passes into a mass of
crystals' (a mosaic) whereas originally calcitic components
retain their true original structure (figs 3 and 4 of Sorby
1879). He suggested criteria whereby originally aragonitic
components might be recognized. His optical criteria
(* below), when supplemented by more modern approaches,
are still valid and are included in Sandberg's (1983) criteria
by which former aragonite may be recognized. These are, in
order of descending reliability:
(1) grain still aragonite;
(2) original feature now a mosaic* of generally calcite spar
containing orientated aragonite relicts;
(3) original feature now a mosaic* but lacking aragonite
relicts; high Sr z+ contents relative to levels reasonably
expected in primary calcite (i.e. thousands of ppm);
(4) original feature now a calcite mosaic* but Sr 2+ values
are either low (hundreds of ppm) or not measured;
(5)* particular grain types selectively dissolved (moulded) or
comprise calcite-filled moulds, this criterion can be
strengthened if skeletal grains known to have been
originally aragonitic, by analogy with modern forms,
have behaved similarly in the same rock (i.e. most
marine gastropods and nautiloids).
Sorby demonstrated that Palaeozoic corals were
originally calcitic and thus different from their modern
Scleractinian counterparts. The significance of such observa-
tions, particularly the implications of changes in sea-water
chemistry through time, was not realized for a century (e.g.
Wilkinson 1979). Debate on this important issue continues
today.
Thus, by 1879 Sorby had laid the foundations of
diagenetic studies in carbonates. A few significant edifices
arose on these foundations, like that of Cullis (1904) who
documented the petrography of carbonates in the Funafuti
borehole (Cullis also used stains to distinguish between
aragonite, calcite and dolomite), but several decades were
 Downloaded from http://jgs.lyellcollection.org/ at University of California-San Diego on December 19, 2016
LIMESTONES
to elapse before significant progress was made (e.g. Bathurst
1958, 1959).
Disintegration of shells and the origin of lime-mud
Sorby deduced that lime-mud could be generated through
the organic degradation (including micro-boring) and
physical abrasion of skeletal material and pre-existing
limestones. He also knew that minute crystals of calcite and
aragonite could precipitate directly from certain waters.
Fine mud, he decided, could never be generated from the
degradation of crinoids, oysters and brachiopods, whereas
he showed that corals kept for a few weeks in water gave
rise to such minute particles that the water became 'like
dilute milk'. The origin of lime-mud became controversial
eight decades later when Cloud (1962) argued that
evaporative precipitation alone explained Bahamian lime-
mud. Later studies (Stockman et al. 1967; Neumann & Land
1975) showed that disintegration of aragonitic codiacian
algae also generated vast quantities of lagoonal aragonitic
mud. Direct precipitation of aragonite needles has also been
demonstrated (Shinn et al. 1989), so both skeletal
degradation and precipitation may contribute to the
reservoir of lagoonal, and peri-platform, lime-mud. But in
modern temperate waters, skeletal disintegration is probably
the most important source of fine-grained carbonate (e.g.
Lees 1975). Sorby thought that aragonitic muds could
change to calcite, thus explaining ancient finely crystalline
limestones. The origins of micrite-grade matrix in ancient
limestones, although becoming more easy to investigate with
the general application of the SEM (e.g. Loreau 1972), are
still to some extent problematic. Using a combination of
optical petrography, Feigl stain, SEM, X-ray and electron
diffraction techniques, Lasemi & Sandberg (1984) dem-
onstrated that well-lithified Pleistocene 'micrites' had
resulted from the alteration of predominantly aragonitic
precursors, the mechanism involving a one-step neomorphic
process of calcitization. Further application of geochemical
techniques, such as an investigation of the Sr content (e.g.
Sandberg 1983; Tucker & Bathurst 1990; Tucker & Wright
1990), can help to resolve whether significant amounts of
aragonite were originally present. Sorby does not appear to
differentiate between high magnesian calcite (calcite with 4
mole% MgCO3; HMC) and low magnesian calcite (LMC).
It is only over about the past three decades that our
awareness has increased with regard to the diagenetic
significance of such differences, in particular the greater
potential for HMC to undergo diagenetic change (e.g.
dissolution, Land 1967; and micro-dolomitization, Lohmann
& Meyers 1977).
Consolidation of limestones
The porosity of newly deposited carbonate sediment is very
variable. According to Sorby (1879), if grains are 'nearly
spherical, and of the same size, it could not be much less
than ~ of the whole volume'. He found, by experiment, that
varying the grain shape and the amount of infiltrated fines,
significantly altered the porosity. Experimental studies have
subsequently shown that compaction affects grainy lime-
stones less than muddy ones and that a porosity loss of 30%
may occur in shelly lime muds without significant shell
breakage taking place (Bhattacharya & Friedman 1979). In
limestones, Sorby noted that what had been original pore
spaces were generally lined, or filled, with crystalline calcite.
803
He concluded that where originally aragonitic shells were
represented by casts, dissolution of their aragonite had led
to the re-precipitation of calcite cement. In many cases,
however, he noted that crystallization had obliterated
original textures and grain outlines. That such processes
could not always be attributed to 'the effect of
heat-metamorphism' were proven by the occurrence of
apparently similarly lithified modern sediments and reefs in
the Bahamas and Bermuda. Thus, he recognized that early
lithification and cementation typifed many carbonates, but
it was to be many decades before readily acceptable criteria
were established whereby cementation textures could be
distinguished from those produced by recrystallization
(Bathurst 1958, 1959). Some recrystallization phenomena
are still difficult to identify, particularly at the ultra-fine
scale of individual coccoliths and foraminiferans.
Early cementation in carbonate beach rock (Ginsburg
1953; Tracey in Emery et al. 1954) and observations on early
diagenesis in south Florida carbonates confirmed Sorby's
original view that carbonates need not be deeply buried in
order to become cemented. Subsequently, submarine
cementation was described in reefs (e.g. Ginsburg et al.
1968; Macintyre et al. 1968; Land & Goreau 1970) and on
the sea floor (Shinn 1969). It is now accepted that
penecontemporaneous cementation took place in many
Phanerozoic reefs (e.g. James 1983; Schroeder & Purser
1986) and sea floor cementation in now known from a wide
range of settings from carbonate sand belts (e.g. Dravis
1979), the deep sea (Dix & Mullins 1988) and in submarine
caves (Whitaker & Smart 1990).
Even though complicated classifications of spar types
were proposed (e.g. Folk 1965), the wider realization that
particular types of early cement could be environmentally
specific has really come over the past 25 years (e.g.
foregoing references and Dunham 1971; Halley & Harris
1979; Longman 1980; Tucker & Bathurst 1990). Given &
Wilkinson (1985) have attempted to explain why aragonite,
HMC or LMC precipitation is favoured, and why cements
have a particular morphology, by reference to the
interrelationships between Mg/Ca ratio, and rate of
carbonate ion supply. Much current research is directed
towards increasing our understanding of the processes of
deeper burial cementation and pressure-dissolution (Scholle
& Halley 1985; Choquette & James 1987). Particular
problems currently being addressed are the role of
pressure-dissolution in the development of bedding in
limestones (Simpson 1985; Bathurst 1991), the origin of
deep-burial cements and the interrelationships between
cementation, the evolution of formation fluids and basin
evolution.
Oolitic grains
Sorby's type examples of oolitic grains were 'Spr/idelstein'
from a mineral spring at Carlsbad and were what we
commonly now term cave pearls (Dunham 1972) or cave
pisolites (Bathurst 1971). As such they might not be
considered ideal, even though he regarded recent oolitic
grains from 'Bahama and Bermuda' as being of the same
general character. Nonetheless, his meticulous observations
(fine concentric structure, a well-defined positive pseudo-
uniaxial figure and appropriate specific gravity) shows that
the grains he studied consisted of aragonite. Sorby suggested
that the thin concentric layers within the grains (Figs 1 and
 Downloaded from http://jgs.lyellcollection.org/ at University of California-San Diego on December 19, 2016
804
Recent Marine Ooids
Random
--
Nucleus' Concentric laminae
Ancient Marine Ooids
P o r e - filling Calcitised aragonite
sparry calcite with relic sructure
......
Radial fabri(
Fig. 1. Major types of microstructure seen in modern and ancient
ooids (from Tucker & Wright 1990).
2) did not result from the direct precipitation of crystals
from solution, but by the mechanical accumulation of
minute prismatic crystals with their long axes parallel to the
surface of growth. They were, he proposed, 'mechanically
accumulated round the centre, something like the layers in a
large rolled snowball'. Bahamian ooids had similar
characteristics, but less perfectly developed. He suspected
that this was because they had formed in water rich in the
mud derived from decayed shells, and that the purely
chemical deposit served to collect minute aragonitic granules
onto the spheroidal grains. The dominant modern view,
following many subsequent studies, favours a precipita-
tional rather than accretionary origin for ooids (e.g.
Bathurst 1971; Loreau & Purser 1973), this view being
supported by experimental studies (e.g. Davies et al. 1978).
I when significant differences existed. During the early and
Fig. 2. Concentric structure in Carlsbad cave pearl (left); calcitic
Jurassic ooid with radial microstructure (centre); originally
aragonitic ooid now preserved as a calcite mosaic (right) (from
Sorby 1879).
B.W. SELLWOOD
Radial
Tangential
Fig. 3. SEM micrograph of porecast (epoxy replica of micro-
porosity within originally calcitic ooids), Great Oolite (Mid-
Jurassic) grainstone, 1406 m depth, Weald Basin.
Ooids, their mode of formation and significance,
continued to provoke interest (even of petrographers)
through the post-Sorby years and several memorable papers
Micrite were published (e.g. Brown 1914). The mineralogy of ooids
influences both their microfabric and their subsequent
diagenesis, with most modern marine ooids being aragonitic
in composition. Aragonite is the favoured precipitate
wherever Mg:Ca ratios are high, whether in the sea or lakes
(Richter 1983), marine ooids generally forming on shallowly
submerged high energy shoals or shorefaces in tropical seas.
HMC ooids are rare in modern systems whereas LMC ooids
are known from modern streams, caves, lakes and soils.
Various types of microstructure are commonly seen in ooids
(Fig. 1) and individual grains may retain original internal
microporosity to considerable burial depths (e.g. Fig. 3).
Using the petrographic criteria already established for shell
material, Sorby points out quite clearly that some ancient
ooids were aragonitic whilst others (e.g. some from the
British Jurassic) were originally calcitic and had their
principal negative axis arranged in a radiate manner.
Cayeux (1935, p. 225) considered this 'structure radi6e' to
be a secondary feature, and this remained the favoured
interpretation until the 1970s (see above). Research on
radial aragonitic ooids of the Great Salt Lake Utah
(Sandberg 1975) raised fundamental questions on whether
the compositions of non-skeletal marine precipitates have
remained similar to those of the Recent throughout
Phanerozoic time (e.g Sandberg 1983, 1985). It is now well
established that there were time intervals in the past when
marine precipitates were broadly comparable with those of
the present (e.g late Carboniferous to Permian) and others
mid-Palaeozoic (Cambrian to early Carboniferous) and most
of the Mesozoic (Jurassic and Cretaceous) LMC appears to
have dominated both cements and non-skeletal grains.
K 4.;>-.~ ) : / There is an apparent absence, globally, of late Cretaceous
ooids. These changing temporal abundances of aragonite,
HMC and LMC, and grain-types, record significant changes
in the composition not only of seawater, but also of the
whole ocean/atmosphere system (e.g. Wilkinson 1979;
Wilkinson et al. 1985; Sandberg 1985; Berner 1992).
 Downloaded from http://jgs.lyellcollection.org/ at University of California-San Diego on December 19, 2016
LIMESTONES
The Sorby scientific legacy: the origin of limestones
Towards e n v i r o n m e n t a l interpretation
To Sorby the origin of limestones was very much bound up
with questions such as: what are the constituents within
limestones and how have they been put together? By 1926,
Twenhofel (p.152) was already convinced that to interpret
the origin of any sediment required a reconstruction of the
environment in which the sediment was deposited.
Interpretation of sedimentary environments, facies analysis,
requires a refined stratigraphic framework, but many
limestone successions lacked the fossil groups then (and
still) vital for precise correlation. Twenhofel was also able to
underline the importance of diagenetic modifications. These
alteration processes had, by then, been specifically
addressed by such workers as Andr6e (1911) and Schuchert
(1920).
Stemming ultimately from the classic observations on
reefs by Darwin (1842), and subsequent expeditions such as
that to Funafuti (Bonney 1904), some of the most
convincing attempts at carbonate environmental inter-
pretation were made on ancient reef systems (e.g. Grabau
1903, on Palaeozoic reefs in general; Munthe 1910 on the
Silurian reefs of Gotland and those in the English Wenlock
by Crosfield & Johnston 1914). More generalized environ-
mental studies on Recent systems, such as that of Vaughan
(1910) in Florida and the Challenger reports (Murray &
Renard 1891), allowed interpretations to become integral to
regional stratigraphic papers, among the classics being
Dixon & Vaughan (1911) on the Carboniferous succession
in the Gower Peninsula, S. Wales. Carbonates still posed
intractable problems, however, especially chalks. Although
they had been discovered to contain coccoliths (by Sorby),
and planktic foraminiferans (Jukes-Brown & Hill 1903,
1904), Twenhofel (1926, p. 295) considered chalks to be
shallow-water deposits that accumulated 'under conditions
which are still not understood'. This is an oddly opaque
statement, particularly in view of the detailed descriptions of
pelagic oozes then available in the Challenger reports.
Indeed, these reports were so thorough in their coverage
that no comparably exhaustive survey of oceanic sediments
was undertaken for 50 years (the Deep Sea Drilling Project
and the Ocean Drilling Program; reviewed in Jenkyns 1986).
Sorby (1879), however, had already suggested that Chalk,
although far from being identical with Globigerina-ooze,
was analogous to 'deep ocean mud comparatively free from
volcanic and other mechanical mineral impurities'. He had
recognized the pelagic nature of this shelf-sea sediment,
even though his implication that it accumulated at great
depth is not now accepted (Jenkyns & Hsu, 1974; Hancock
1975).
The discovery of major oil accumulations in North Sea
chalks, preferentially porous in re-sedimented facies
(Scholle et al. 1983; Hancock et al. 1987; Taylor & Lapr6
1987) has led to further re-evaluations of onshore chalks,
some exhibiting slumps and debris flows (e.g. in Normandy
by Quine & Bosence 1991). Rhythmic bedding in chalks,
and other hemi-pelagic carbonates, are providing convincing
evidence (through integration of petrographic and oxygen
isotopic data) for short-term cyclical change in water
temperature and productivity consistent with Milankovitch
fluctuations (e.g. Ditchfield & Marshall 1989).
A major impetus towards a better understanding of both
depositional and diagenetic processes came when substantial
805
hydrocarbon discoveries were made in carbonate reservoirs,
especially between 1920 and 1930 (e.g. late Jurassic,
Smackover oolites in Arkansas; the mid-Cretaceous Golden
Lane and Poza Rica rudistid reefs in Mexico; the Yates
Field of W. Texas; and the vast Kirkuk Field of Iraq in
which there were several reservoirs, some in Cretaceous
chalks and others in Tertiary limestones). In the Middle
East the work of Henson (e.g. 1950) on Cretaceous and
Tertiary reefs signalled a re-birth of carbonate study, the
reef resurgence continuing in the USA with the classic study
by Newell et al. (1953) of the Permian Reef Complex of
Texas and New Mexico. In hydrocarbon exploration reefs
began to rival anticlines as exploration targets, even though
many of the reefal reservoir facies turned out to be adjacent
to, rather than in, the ancient reefs themselves.
In the 1950s began a series of classic studies on modern
carbonate systems. These researches re-laid the foundations
upon which facies models could be refined, and against
which they could be tested (e.g. Illing 1954; Emery et al.
1954; Newell et al. 1959; Ginsburg 1956; Cloud 1962; Logan
et al. 1970; James & Ginsburg 1979 and many others). A
major difference in approach has distinguished such studies
from parallel studies on terrigenous clastic systems and this
has been the necessity, in carbonates, to integrate a very
wide range of biological, petrological and physico-chemical
observations. Only with the realization, in the 1970s, that
reservoir sandstones undergo profit-damaging diagenesis,
did some siliciclastic practitioners re-discover petrography.
But with carbonates, and particularly using borehole ditch
cuttings, it was soon established that microfacies inter-
pretations could provide a valuable predictive tool in
subsurface exploration. The microfacies schemes evolved by
Wilson (1969, 1975) and Fliigel (1982) are frequently cited
as giving a first-order means of interpreting carbonate
interrelationships in frontier areas. Such approaches are
useful in subsurface studies because wireline logs are often
less informative in carbonates than in terrigenous clastic
successions.
L i m e s t o n e classification
Understanding required classification but, as Folk (1972)
observed, the literature of the 1920s to 1940s suggests that
carbonate knowledge had actually regressed from Sorby's
time. Folk's (1959) classification, inspired by Krynine's
treatment of sandstones, recognized that carbonates could,
in simple terms, be considered to consist of mechanically
transported grains (allochems), carbonate mud matrix
(micrite) and pore-filling calcite cement (spar). The
classification requires a petrographic approach. Not only
does the scheme provide an accurate description, it is also
genetic, the rock class relating to depositional hydraulic
energy (high energy oosparite; low energy micrite etc.).
Folk's classification was re-stated in the volume edited by
Ham (1962) in which the most widely used of all carbonate
classifications also appeared (Dunham 1962). The Dunham
scheme emphasized depositional texture but did not propose
formal terminology for grain types. Dunham's scheme
(defining grainstone, packstone, wackestone and mudstone)
could be used in the field and on whole core, whereas Folk's
scheme mostly required more detailed petrography. Neither
classification worked well for reefal carbonates nor for
carbonates that had been severely altered by diagenesis. A
derivative of the Dunham scheme, that of Embry & Klovan
 Downloaded from http://jgs.lyellcollection.org/ at University of California-San Diego on December 19, 2016

806 B.W. SELLWOOD

(1971), has been generally adopted for reefs and more them to the early burial history of the limestone. It is even
recently Wright (1992) has proposed a petrographically- possible, in favourable cases, to map the distribution of
based scheme that attempts to address the problem of palaeo-meteoric lenses within ancient carbonate platforms
altered and crystalline carbonates. (e.g. Meyers 1978; Emery & Dickson 1989). The relative
timing of the emplacement of particular cement phases can
R i m m e d shelves and ramps, and sequence stratigraphy be related to basin evolution, fluid (including oil) migration
and burial history (e.g. Prezbindowski 1985; Sellwood et al.
During the 1950s and 1960s, and in a growing body of
1993).
literature, consideration of the origin of limestones involved
Refined diagenetic interpretations have been inspired, in
many additional examples being described, and inter-
part, by an extension of essentially petrographic techniques
pretations of ancient depositional environments being
such as staining (Friedman 1959; Dickson 1966), cathodolu-
refined. Carbonate successions were usually interpreted by
minescence (e.g. review in Emery & Marshall 1989), SEM
reference to the newly described modern systems. This was
and UV luminescence, and are truly part of the Sorby
an essentially uniformitarian approach. A typical example is
legacy. Very significant advances have also been made as a
that of Roehl (1967) who explained most of the Ordovician
result of sound petrography being supported by the
and Silurian facies present in oilfields in Montana and the
application of a wide range of geochemical techniques.
Dakotas by direct analogy with the Bahamas. There were
These include stable isotopic analyses (e.g. Hudson 1977
many other such accounts (reviewed in Scholle et al. 1983;
and recent review by Marshall 1992), electron probe
Sellwood 1986). Steep-sided, shoal- or reef-rimmed
microanalysis (e.g. Reeder & Paquette 1989), laser
platforms (such as those of the Bahamas, Florida and atolls)
microprobe (Smalley et al. 1989) and many others (reviewed
were used as depositionai models for many ancient
in Morse & Mackenzie 1990). The key to sound
limestone successions. In such systems facies distributions
interpretation, however, has often been founded upon a
are generally concentrically arranged, reflecting a con-
thorough understanding of both the petrography and the
centration of wave and current energy at the rim. However,
geological context in which the limestone occurs. 'Stable
as many stratigraphers knew, ancient seaways in which
isotopic analysis is the last thing anyone should do!' (M.L.
limestones originated spread over the heartlands of
Coleman pers. comm.).
continents and had minimal slopes ('epeiric seas' of Shaw
Fluid inclusion analysis, is a technique with which Sorby
1964; Irwin 1965). Ahr (1973) termed such systems ramps
would have felt familiar, it was in great measure his own
and these were shown to be dominant at times when
(Sorby 1858). Sorby had investigated 'fluid-cavities' in rock
reef-constructing organisms were either absent or inhibited
salt, and also calcite crystals from veins, recognizing the
(James 1983). Some very relevant data on the workings of a
potential of inclusions as palaeothermometers in a wide
modern low-slope carbonate systems came with studies of
range of minerals. This technique has become increasingly
the Persian (Arabian) Gulf (Purser 1973), but most
used in carbonate geothermometry over the past decade
environmental interpretations involving ramps are still
(e.g. Lee & Friedman 1987; Sellwood et al. 1989).
conceptual. Ramp-like carbonate platform successions have
Pressure-corrected homogenization temperatures from un-
now been interpreted from all parts of the geological record
deformed inclusions can be compared with isotopically-
(Read 1985; Burchette & Wright 1992), having been best
derived palaeotemperature evaluations to help constrain
developed in gently subsiding situations such as foreland
fluid compositions during crystal growth. Freezing tempera-
and interior basins, and along passive margins.
tures obtained from fluid inclusions can provide an
The broad-scale interpretation of carbonate successions
independent check on fluid salinities (wt % NaC1
now involves a thorough integration of geophysical,
equivalent). The use of such techniques, when combined
sedimentological, geochemical and stratigraphic data so that
with thorough petrography and interpretation of burial
the evolving dynamics of such systems may be visualized,
histories, is beginning to define fluid movement within
often using computer models (e.g. Sarg 1988; Aigner &
significant portions of basins (e.g. McLimans 1987; Sellwood
Dott 1990). Although a far cry from Sorby's meticulous
et al. 1989, 1993). Carbonate diagenesis in the deeper parts
petrographic analysis of limestones, many of the largely
of basins may not remain an 'out of sight and out of mind'
conceptual approaches of recent years have depended upon
issue for much longer (Scholle & Halley 1985).
such studies. Modern interpretation of the origins of
carbonate successions does not only involve the recognition
of either ancient ramp or rimmed shelf depositional
environments. It also requires a consideration of sequence Origin o f limestones: not just h o w but when ?
stratigraphic context. This is because ramps and rimmed-
The inadequacy of a high resolution stratigraphic framework
shelves would be expected to behave differently as a result
has often hampered the refinement of both depositional and
of sealevel changes, both in terms of the architectural
diagenetic interpretations. Sorby did not ask 'when?' in his
response of their sediment bodies, and their susceptibility to
1879 Address, but it is a key question today. Not only the
the diagenetic effects of meteoric waters (e.g Wilgus et al.
crucial questions of when did deposition occur and how
1988; Crevello et al. 1989; Tucker & Wright 1990; Schlager
confidently may units be correlated? We also seek to know
1991). These concepts, although prominent in current
about the time-frame within which depositional conditions
carbonate research, go well beyond Sorby's essentially
changed, the possibility of short-term fluctuations (Milanko-
pragmatic approach to limestones.
vitch cyclicity) and shorter term storm frequency.
Interpretations of basin evolution, and especially those put
L i m e s t o n e diagenesis
to practical use (in the petroleum industry for example),
As discussed above, it is possible to interpret some types of demand the absolute dating of depositional, diagenetic and
cement as formed by near-surface processes, and to relate structural events. Without an adequate answer to the
 Downloaded from http://jgs.lyellcollection.org/ at University of California-San Diego on December 19, 2016
LIMESTONES
'when?' question, other interpretations may become
suspect.
To these ends new methods have been applied.
Biostratigraphic techniques, now vastly improved since
Sorby's day, can be used in conjunction with a range of
chemostratigraphic techniques such as carbon-isotope
stratigraphy (Gale et al. 1993) and 875r/86Sr stratigraphy
(e.g. Koepnick et al. 1985; Elderfield 1986). Such advances
have been made as a result of innovative application of
laboratory techniques, scrupulous observations and im-
aginative thought: the Sorby approach.
Conclusions
In the historical development of our subject Sorby was
unique. He saw both what others had not seen, and what
they had seen. However, not only did he think what others
had not thought (Folk 1972), he also comprehended the
potential of his observations, methods and insights, and
many of their implications. His was inspired empiricism.
I am grateful for m a n y useful discussions with colleagues at P R I S ,
and in particular to R. G o l d r i n g , A. P a r k e r , G . Price a n d K.
Ziegler. T h e p a p e r was greatly i m p r o v e d by two a n o n y m o u s
referees whose comments I greatly appreciate.
P R I S C o n t r i b u t i o n N u m b e r 280.
References
AGASSIZ, L. 1894. A reconnaissance of the Bahamams and of the elevated
reefs of Cuba in the steam yacht Wild Duck, January to April 1893.
Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard College, 26,
1-203.
1896. The elevated reefs of Florida. Bulletin of the Museum of
Comparative Zoology, Harvard College. 2 8 , 29-62.
AHR, W.M. 1973. The carbonate ramp: an alternative to the shelf model.
Transactions of the Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies, 23,
221-225.
AIGNER, T. & Do'rr, R.H. 1990. Processes and Patterns in Epeiric Basins.
Special Issue of Sedimentary Geology, 69.
ANDR/~E, K. 1911. Die Diagenese der Sedimente, ihr Beziehungen zur
Sedimentbildung und Sedimentpetrographie. Geologische Rundschau, 2,
61-74, 117-130.
BATHURST, R.G.C. 1958. Diagenetic fabrics in some British Dinantian
limestones. Liverpool and Manchester Geological Journal, 2, 11-36.
1959. Diagenesis in Mississippian calcilutites and pseudobreccias.
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 29, 365-376.
1971. Carbonate Sediments and their Diagenesis. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
1991. Pressure-dissolution and limestone bedding: the influence of
stratified cementation. In: EINSELE, G., RICKEN, W, & SEILACItER, A.
(eds) Cycles and Events in Stratigraphy. Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
450-463.
BERNER, R.A. 1992. PaiReD-CO 2 and climate. Nature, 358, 114.
BHATI'ACHARYA, A. & FRIEDMAN, G.M. 1979. Experimental compaction of
voids and lime mud and its implications for lithification during burial.
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 29, 1279-1286.
BONNEY, T.G. (ed.), 1904. The Atoll of Funafuti. Royal Society, London.
BROWN, T.C. 1914. Origin of oolites and oolitic texture in Rocks. Bulletin of
the Geological Society of America, 25, 745-780.
BURCHETrE, T.P. & WRIGHT, V.P. 1992. Carbonate ramp depositional
systems. Sedimentary Geology, 78, 1-53.
CARPENTER, W.B. 1844. Off the microscopic structures of shells. Report of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, 14, 1-24.
- - 1847. On the microscopic structures of shells. Report of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science, 17, 93-134.
CAYEUX, L. 1929. Les Roches Sgdimentaires de France: Roches Siliceuses.
M6moire pour servir a l'explication de la Carte g6ologique d6taill6e de la
France, Minist~re des Traveaux Publics, Imprimerie Nationale, Paris.
1935. Les Roches S~dimentaires de France: Roches Carbonat(es
(Calcaires et Dolomies), Masson et Cie, Paris.
CHAVE, K.E. 1967. Recent carbonate sediments--an unconventional view.
American Geological Institute Council on Education in Geological
807
Sciences Short Review No. 7, Journal of Geological Education, 15,
200-204.
CHOOUETrE, P.W. & JAMES, N.P. 1987. Diagenesis in limestones--3, the deep
burial environment. Geoscience Canada, 14, 3-35.
CLOUD, P.E. 1962. Environment of calcium carbonate deposition west of
Andros Island. United States Geological Survey Professional Papers,
350.
CREVELLO, P.D., WILSON, J.L., SARG, F. & READ, J.F. (eds) 1989. Controls
on Carbonate Platform and Basin Development. Society of Economic
Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Publications, 44.
CROSFIELD, M.C. ~£ JOHNSTON, M.S. 1914. A study of Ballstone and
associated beds in the Wenlock Limestone of Shropshire. Proceedings of
the Geologists' Association, 25, 193-228.
CULLIS, C.G. 1904. The mineralogical changes in the cores of the Funafuti
borings. In: BONNEY, T.G. (ed.) The Atoll of Funafuti. Royal Society,
London, 393-420.
DARWIN, C. 1842. Structure and distribution of coral reefs. Reprinted 1962 by
University of California Press with forward by H.W. Menard.
DAVIES, P.J., BUBELA, B, & FERGUSON, J. 1978. The formation of voids.
Sedimentology, 2 5 , "703-730.
DiCKSON, J.A.D. 1966. Carbonate identification and genesis revealed by
staining. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 36, 491-505.
DITCHFIELD, P. d~ MARSHALL, J.D. 1989. Isotopic variation in rhythmically
bedded chalks: palaeotemperature variation in the Upper Cretaceous.
Geology, 17, 842-845.
DIX, G.R. & MULLINS, H.T. 1988. Rapid burial diagenesis of deep water
carbonates: Exuma Sound, Bahamas. Geology, 16, 680-683.
DIXON, E.E.L. & VAUGHAN, A. 1911. The Carboniferous succession in
Gower (Glamorganshire), with notes on its fauna and conditions of
depositin. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, 67,
477-71.
DRAVlS, J. 1979. Rapid and widespread generation of Recent oolitic
hardgrounds on a high energy Bahamian Platform, Eleuthera Bank,
Bahamas. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 49, 195-208.
DUNHAM, R.J. 1962. Classification of carbonate rocks according to
depositional texture, in: HAM, W.E. (ed.) Classification of carbonate
rocks. Memoirs of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 1,
108-121.
- - 1971. Meniscus cement. In: BRICKER, O.P. (cd.) Carbonate Cements.
Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 297-300.
-- 1972. Capitan reef, New Mexico and Texas: facts and questions to aid
interpretation and group discussion. Society of Economic Paleontologists
and Mineralogists Permian Basin Section, Publications, 72-14.
ELDERFIELD, H. 1986. Strontium isotope stratigraphy. Palaeogeography,
Palaeoclimatology , Palaeoecology , 57, 71-90.
EMBRY, A.F. & KLOVAN, J.E. 1971. The Late Devonian reef tract on
Northern Banks Island, N.W.T. Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum
Geology, 19, 730-781.
EMERY, D. & DICKSON, J.A.D. 1989. A syndepositional meteoric phreatic
lens in Middle Jurassic Lincolnshire Limestone, England, U.K.
Sedimentary Geology 6 5 , 273-284.
- - • MARSHALL, J.D. 1989. Zoned calcite cement: has analysis outpaced
interpretation? Sedimentary Geology, 65, 205-210.
EMERY, K.O., TRACEY, J.I. & LADD, H.S. 1954. Geology of Bikini and
nearby atolls. United States Geological Survey Professional Papers,
260-A.
FLOGEL, E. 1982. Microfacies Analysis of Limestones. Springer-Verlag,
Berlin.
FOLK, R.L. 1959. Practical petrographic classification of limestones. Bulletin
of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 43, 1-38.
- - 1965. Some aspects of recrystallization in ancient limestones. In: PRAY,
L.C. & MURRAY, R.C. (eds) Dolomitization and Limestone Diagenesis.
Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special
Publications, 13, 14-48.
-- 1972. Carbonate petrography in the post-Sorbian agc. In: GIr~SSURG,
R.N. (ed.) Evolving Concepts in Sedimentology. The Johns Hopkins
University Press, Baltimore, 118-158.
FRIEDMAN, G.M. 1959. Identification of carbonate minerals by staining
methods. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 29, 87-97.
GALE, A.S., JENKYNS, H.C., KENNEDY, W.J. d~ COREIELD, R.M. 1993.
Chemostratigraphy versus biostratigraphy: data from around the
Cenomanian-Turonian boundary. Journal of the Geological Society,
London, 150, 29-32.
GEIKIE, A. 1908. Presidential Address: The published work of the Geological
Society of London during the First Century of the Society's existence.
Proceedings of the Geological Society, London, 64, lxix-cxxv.
GINSBURG, R.N. 1953. Beach rock in south Florida. Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology, 23, 85-92.
1956. Environmental relationships of grain size and constituent particles
 Downloaded from http://jgs.lyellcollection.org/ at University of California-San Diego on December 19, 2016
808 B.W. SELLWOOD
in some south Florida carbonate sediments. Bulletin of the American
Association of Petroleum Geologists, 40, 2384-2427.
, SmNN, E.A. & SCHROEDER, J.H. 1968. Submarine cementation and
internal sedimentation within Bermuda reefs. Special Papers of the
Geological Society of America, 115, 78-79 (abstract).
GIVEN, R.K. & WILKINSON, B.H. 1985. Kinetic control of morphology,
composition and mineralogy of abiotic sedimentary carbonates. Journal
of Sedimentary Petrology, 55, 109-119.
GRABAU, A.W. 1903. Paleozoic coral reefs. Bulletin of the Geological Society
of America, 14, 337-352.
HALLEY, R.B. & HARRIS, P.M. 1979. Freshwater cementation of 1000 year
old oolite. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 49, 969-988.
HAM, W.E. (ed.) 1962. Classification of Carbonate Rocks. Memoirs of the
American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 1, Tulsa.
HANCOCK, J.M. 1975. The petrology of the Chalk. Proceedings of the
Geologists' Association, 86, 499-536.
, KENNEDY, W.J., BAILEY, H.W., BREWSTER, J., D'HEuR, M. & JONES,
M.E. 1987. Chalk in the North Sea. Joint Association for Petroleum
Exploration Courses (UK), Course Notes 54, Geological Society of
London.
HENSON, F.R.S. 1950. Cretaceous and Tertiary reef formations and associated
sediments in Middle East. Bulletin of the American Association of
Petroleum Geologists, 34, 215-238.
HUDSON, J.D. 1977. Stable isotopes and limestone lithification. Journal of the
Geological Society, London, 133, 637-660.
ILt.ING, M.L. 1954. Bahamian calcareous sands. Bulletin of the American
Association of Petroleum Geologists, 38, 1-95.
IRWIN, M.L. 1965. General theory of epciric clear water sedimentation.
Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 49,
445-459.
JAMES, N.P. 1983. Reef environment. In: SCIIOLLE, P.A., BEaOUT, D.G. &
MOORE, C.H. (eds) Carbonate Depositional Environments. Memoirs of
the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 33, 345-44(I.
& BosE, Y. 1989. Petrogenesis of Cenozoic temperate watcr
calcarenites, South Australia: a model for meteoric/shallow burial
diagenesis of shallow water calcite sediments. Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology, 59, 191-203.
& 1991. Origin of a cool-water Oligo-Miocenc deep shelf
limestone, Lucia Platform, southern Australia. Sedimentology, 38,
323-342.
- & GINSBURG, R.N. 1979. The seaward margin of Belize barrier and atoll
- Mountains Region, Texas and New Mexico. W.It. Frccman, San
reefs. Special Publications of the International Association of
Sedimentologists, 3.
JENKYNS, H.C. 1986. Pelagic cnvironmcnts. In: READING, H.G. (ed.)
Sedimentary Environments and Facies. Blackwell Scientific Publications,
Oxford, 343-397.
- & Hsc, K.J. 1974. Pelagic sediments: on land and under the sea. In:
- study, Stuart City Trend, South Central Texas. In: E rIIING'I'ON, R.L.
Hsu, K.J. & JENKYNS, H.C. (eds) Pelagic Sediments on Land and under
the Sea. Special Publications of the International Association of
Sedimentologists, 1, 1-10.
JUDD, J.W. 1904. General report on the materials sent from Funafuti. In:
BONNEY, T.G. (ed.) The Atoll of Funafuti, Borings into a Coral Reef and
the Results. Royal Society, London.
JUKES-BROWN, A.J. & HILL, W. 1903. The Cretaceous rocks of Britain. 2: The
Lower and Middle Chalk of England. Memoirs of the Geological Survey
of the United Kingdom.
-- & -- 1904. The Cretaceous rocks of Britain. 3: The Upper Chalk of
England. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom.
KOEPNICK, R.B., BURKE, W.H., DENISON, R.E., HETItERINGTON, E.A.,
NELSON, H.F., O t t o , J.B.& WAITE, L.E. 1985. Construction of the
seawater a7Sr/S6Sr curve for the Cenozoic and Cretaceous: supporting
data. Chemical Geology, 58, 55-81.
LAND, L.S. 1967. Diagenesis of skeletal carbonates. Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology, 37, 914-930.
- & GOREAU, T.F. 1970. Submarine lithification of Jamaican reefs.
- 1979-2032.
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 57, 544-557.
LASEMI, Z. & SANDBERG, P.A. 1984. Transformation of aragonite-dominated
lime muds to microcrystalline limestones. Geology, 12, 420-423.
LEE, Y.L. & FRIEDMAN, G.M. 1987. Deep-burial dolomitization in the
Ordovician Ellenberger Group carbonates, West Texas and Southeastern
New Mexico. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 57, 544-557.
LEES, A. 1975. Possible influences of salinity and temperature on modern
shelf carbonate sediments. Marine Geology, 19, 159-198.
- & BULLER, A.T. 1972. Modern temperate-water and warm-water shelf
- ists, 36, 33-57.
carbonate sediments contrasted. Marine Geology, 13, 1767-1773.
LOGAN, B.W., DAVIES, G.R., READ, J.F. & CEBULSKI, D.I. (eds) 1970.
Carbonate Sedimentation and Environments, Shark Bay, Western
Australia. Memoirs of the American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, 13.
LOHMANN, K.C. & MEYERS, W.J. 1977. Micro-dolomite inclusions in cloudy
prismatic calcites--a proposed criterion of former high magnesium
calcites. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 47, 1078-1088.
LONGMAN, M.W. 1980. Carbonate diagenetic textures from nearshore
diagenetic environments. Bulletin of the American Association of
Petroleum Geologists, 64, 461-487.
LOREAU, J.P. 1972. P6trographie de calcaires fins au microscope 61cctronique
a balayage: introduction ~ une classification des 'micrites'. Comptes
Rendus des Sdances de l'Acaddmie des Sciences, Paris, 0274, 810-813.
- & PURSER, B.H. 1973. Distribution and ultrastructure of Holoccnc ooids
-
in the Pcrsian Gulf. In: PURSER, B.H. (ed.) The Persian Gulf: Holocene
Carbonate Sedimentation and Diagenesis in a Shallow Epicontinental Sea.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 279-328.
MAC1NTYRE, 1.G., MOUNrJoY, E.W. & D'ANGLEJAN, B.F. 1968. An
occurrence of submarine cementation of carbonate scdimcnts off the
west coast of Barbados, WI. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 38, 660-
664.
MARSIIALL, J.D. 1992. Climatic and oceanographic isotopic signals from the
carbonate rock record and their prcscrvation. Geological Magazine, 129,
143-160.
McLIMANS, R.K. 1987. The application of fluid inclusions to migration of oil
and diagenesis in petroleum reservoirs. Applied Geochemistry, 2,
585-603.
MEVf'RS, W.J. 1978. Carbonate cements: their regional distribution and
interpretation in Missippian limestones of southwestern New Mexico.
Sedimentology, 25, 371-4(X).
MORSF, J.W. & MACKENZIE, F.T. 1990. Geochemistry of Sedimentary
Carbonates. Elsevier, Amstcrdam.
MUNTIIE, H. 1910. Thc sequence of strata in southern Gotland. Geologiska
FOreningens 1 Stockholm F6handlingar, 32, 1397-1453.
MURRAY, J. d~ RENARD, A.F. 1891. Report on dccp-sca deposits based on
specimens collected during the voyage of H.M.S. Challenger in the years
1873- ! 876. In : Challenger Reports'. H.M.S.O., Edinburgh.
NELSON, D.B. 1988. Non-tropical shelf carbonates--modern and ancient.
Sedimentary Geology, 60, 51-70.
NEUMANN, A.C. & LAND, L.S. 1975. Lime mud deposition and calcareous
algae in the Bight of Abaco, Bahamas: a budget. Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology, 45, 763-786.
NEWELL, N.D., RIGaY, J.K., FISCIIER, A.G., WIIITEMAN, A.J., HICKOX, J.E.
d~. BRADLEY, J.S. 1953. The Permian Reef Complex of the Guadalupe
Francisco.
- IMaRIE, J., PURDY, E.G. & THURaER, D.L. 1959. Organism communities
-
and bottom facics, Great Bahama Bank. Bulletin of the Americam
Museum of Natural History, 117, 177-228.
PRI.:ZmNDOWSKL D.R. 1985. Burial cementation--is it important? A case
(cd.) Carbonate Cements. Special Publications of the Society of
Economic Paleontologists and Mincralogists, 36, 241-264.
PURSER, B.H. (cd.) 1973. The Persian Gulf: Holocene Carbonate
Sedimentation and Diagenesis in a Shallow Epicontinental Sea.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
QUINE, M. & BOSENCE, D. 1991. Stratal geometries, facies and sea-floor
erosion in Upper Cretaceous Chalk, Normandy, France. Sedimentology,
38, 1113-1152.
READ, J.F. 1985. Carbonate platform facies models. Bulletin of the American
Association of Petroleum Geologists, 69, 1-21.
REEDER, R.J. & PAOUETTE, J. 1989. Sector zoning in natural and synthetic
calcites. Sedimentary Geology, 239-248.
6 5 ,
RIcIrrER, D.K. 1983. Calcareous ooids: a synopsis. In: PERYr, T.M. (ed.)
Coated Grains. Springer-Vcrlag, Berlin, 71-99.
ROEIIL, P.O. 1967. Stony Mountain (Ordovician) and Intcrlakc (Silurian)
facies analogues of Recent low-energy marine and subacrial carbonates.
Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 51,
SANDBERG, P.A. 1975. New interpretation of Great Salt Lake ooids and
of ancient non-skeletal carbonate mineralogy. Sedimentology, 22,
497-538.
1983. An oscillating trend in Phancrozoic non-skeletal carbonate
mineralogy. Nature, 305, 19-22.
1985. Aragonite cements and their occurrence in ancient limestones. In:
SCHNEIDERMANN, N. & HARRIS, P.M. (eds) Carbonate Cements. Special
Publications of the Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralog-
SARG, J.F. 1988. Carbonate sequence stratigraphy. In: WILGUS, C.K.,
HASTINGS, B.S., KENDALL, C.G. ST. C., POSAMENTIER, H.W., ROSS,
C.A. & VAN WAGONER, J.C. (eds) Sea-level Changes, an integrated
approach. Special Publications of the Society of Economic Paleon-
tologists and Mineralogists, 42, 155-181.
 Downloaded from http://jgs.lyellcollection.org/ at University of California-San Diego on December 19, 2016
LIMESTONES
SCHLAGER, W. 1991. Depositional bias and environmental change -important
factors in sequence stratigraphy. Sedimentary Geology, 70, 109-130.
SCHOLLE, P.A. & HALLEY, R.B. 1985. Burial diagenesis: out of sight, out of
mind. In: SCHNEIDERMANN, N. • HARRIS, P.M. (eds) Carbonate
Cements. Special Publications of the Society of Economic Paleon-
tologists and Mineralogists, 36, 309-334.
, BEBOUT, D.G. & MOORE, C.H. (eds) 1983. Carbonate Depositional
Environments. Memoirs of the American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, 33.
, ARTHUR, M.A. & EKDALE, A.A. 1983. Pelagic environment. In:
SCHOLLE, P., BEBOUT, D.G. & MOORE, C.H. (eds) Carbonate
Depositional Environments. Memoirs of the American Association of
Petroleum Geologists, 33, 619-691.
SCHROEDER, J.H. & PURSER, B.H. (eds) 1986. Reef Diagenesis.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, London, Paris, Tokyo.
SCHUCHERT, C. 1920. Diagenesis in sedimentation. Bulletin of the Geological
Society of America, 31, 425-432.
SELLWOOD, B.W. 1986. Shallow-marine carbonate environments. In:
READING, H.G. (ed.) Sedimentary Environments and Facies. Blackweil
Scientific Publications, Oxford, 283-242.
--, SHEPHERD, T.J., EVANS, M.R. & JAMES, B. 1989. Origin of late cements
in oolitic reservoir facies: a fluid inclusion and stable isotopic study
(Mid-Jurassic, southern England). Sedimentary Geology, 61, 223-237.
--, WILKES, M. & JAMES, B. 1993. Hydrocarbon inclusions in latc calcite
cements: migration indicators in the Great Oolite Group, Weald Basin,
S. England. Sedimentary Geology, 84, 51-55.
SHAW, A.B. 1964. Time in Stratigraphy. McGraw-Hill, New York.
SHINN, E.A. 1969. Submarine iithification of Holocene carbonate sediments
in the Persian Gulf. Sedimentology, 12, 109-144.
--, STEINEN, R.P., LIDZ, B.H. & SWART, P. 1989. Whitings, a
sedimentologic dilemma. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 59, 147-161.
SIMPSON, J. 1985. Stylolite-controlled layering in an homogeneous limcstonc:
pseudo-bedding produced by burial diagencsis. Sedimentology, 32,
494-505.
SMALLEY, P.C., STIJEHOORN, D.E., RAtlEIM, A., JOItANSEN, H. & DICKSON,
J.A.D. 1989. The laser microprobe and its application to the study of C
and O isotopes in calcite and aragonite. Sedimentary Geology, 65,
211-222.
SOLLAS,W.J. 1909. Anniversary Address of the President. Proceedings of the
Geological Society of London, 65, I-cxxii.
SORRY, H.C. 1851. On the microscopical structure of the Calcareous Grit of
the Yorkshire Coast. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of
London, 7, 1-6.
- - 1858. On the microscopical structure of crystals, indicating the origin of
minerals and rocks. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of
London, 14, 453-497.
Reccivcd 16 March 1993; revised typescript acccpted 5 May 1992.
809
- - 1862. On the cause of difference in the state of preservation of different
kinds of fossil shells. Report of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, 32, 95-96.
- - 1879. Anniversary Address of the President: the structure and origin of
limestones. Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, 35, 56-95.
- - 1908. On the application of quantitative methods to the study of the
structure and history of rocks. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society
of London, 64, 172-232.
STOCKMAN, K.W., GINSBURG, R.N. & SHINN, E.A. 1967. The production of
lime mud by algae in south Florida. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology,
37, 633-648.
TAYLOR, S.R. & LAPR~, J.F. 1987. North Sea chalk diagenesis: its effect on
reservoir location and properties. In: BROOKS, J. & GLENNIE, K. (eds)
Petroleum Geology of North West Europe. Graham and Trotman,
483-495.
TUCKER, M.E. & BATHURST, R.G.C. (eds) 1990. Carbonate Diagenesis.
Reprint Series, 1, International Association of Sedimentologists.
& 1990. Carbonate Sedimentology. Blackwell Scientific
Publications, Oxford.
TWENHOFEL, W.H. 1926. Treatise on Sedimentation. Williams and Wilkins
Co., Baltimore.
VAUGHAN, T.W. 1910. A contribution to the geologic history of the Floridan
plateau. Papers of the Tortugas Laboratory, Carnegie Institute,
Washington, 133, 99-185.
WILKINSON, B.H. 1979. Biomineralization, paleoceanography and the
evolution of calcareous marine organisms. Geology, 7, 524-527.
---, OWEN, R.M. & CARROLL, A.R. 1985. Submarine hydrothermal
weathering, global eustacy, and carbonate polymorphism in Phanerozoic
marine oolites. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 55, 171-183.
WHITAKER, F.F. & SMART, P. 1990. Active circulation of saline groundwaters
in carbonate platforms: evidence from the Great Bahama Bank.
Geology, 18, 200-203.
WILGUS, C.K., HASTINGS, B.S., KENDALL, C.G. ST. C., POSAMENTIER, H.W.,
ROSS, C.A., & VAN WAGONER, J.C. 1988. Sea-level changes: an
integrated approach. Special Publications of the Society of Economic
Paleontologists and Mineralogists, 42.
WILSON, J.L. 1969. Microfacies and sedimentary structures in 'deper-water'
lime mudstones. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists
Special Publications, 14, 4-19.
-- 1975. Carbonate Facies in Geologic History. Springer-Verlag, Bcrlin.
WITIIAM,H. 1831. Observations on fossil vegetables accompannied by
representations of their internal structure as seen through the
microscopc. Edinburgh Journal of Science, 183, 1-58.
WRIGIrr, V.P. 1992. A revised classification of limestones. Sedimentary
Geology, 76, 177-186.