Chapter7 PDF

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013 1
Chapter 7 Dimensional Analysis and Modeling
The Need for Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis is a process of formulating fluid

mechanics problems in terms of nondimensional variables
and parameters.
1. Reduction in Variables:
F = functional form
If F(A1, A2, …, An) = 0, Ai = dimensional
variables
Then f(1, 2, … r < n) = 0 j = nondimensional
parameters
Thereby reduces number of = j (Ai)
experiments and/or simulations i.e., j consists of
required to determine f vs. F nondimensional
groupings of Ai’s
2. Helps in understanding physics
3. Useful in data analysis and modeling
4. Fundamental to concept of similarity and model testing
Enables scaling for different physical dimensions and

fluid properties
Dimensions and Equations
Basic dimensions: F, L, and t or M, L, and t

F and M related by F = Ma = MLT-2
Buckingham  Theorem
In a physical problem including n dimensional variables in

which there are m dimensions, the variables can be
arranged into r = n – m̂ independent nondimensional
parameters r (where usually m̂ = m).
F(A1, A2, …, An) = 0
f(1, 2, … r) = 0
Ai’s = dimensional variables required to formulate problem

(i = 1, n)
j’s = nondimensional parameters consisting of groupings

of Ai’s (j = 1, r)
F, f represents functional relationships between An’s and

r’s, respectively
m̂ = rank of dimensional matrix

= m (i.e., number of dimensions) usually
Dimensional Analysis
Methods for determining i’s
1. Functional Relationship Method
Identify functional relationships F(Ai) and f(j)by first

determining Ai’s and then evaluating j’s
a. Inspection intuition
b. Step-by-step Method text
c. Exponent Method class
2. Nondimensionalize governing differential equations and

initial and boundary conditions
Select appropriate quantities for nondimensionalizing the

GDE, IC, and BC e.g. for M, L, and t
Put GDE, IC, and BC in nondimensional form
Identify j’s
Exponent Method for Determining j’s
1) determine the n essential quantities

2) select m̂ of the A quantities, with different dimensions,
that contain among them the m̂ dimensions, and use
them as repeating variables together with one of the
other A quantities to determine each .
For example let A1, A2, and A3 contain M, L, and t (not

necessarily in each one, but collectively); then the j
parameters are formed as follows:
Determine exponents
1  A1x1 A 2y1 A 3z1 A 4 such that i’s are
dimensionless
 2  A1x 2 A 2y2 A 3z 2 A 5
3 equations and 3
 n m  A1x n  m A 2yn  m A 3z n  m A n unknowns for each i
In these equations the exponents are determined so that

each  is dimensionless. This is accomplished by
substituting the dimensions for each of the Ai in the
equations and equating the sum of the exponents of M, L,
and t each to zero. This produces three equations in three
unknowns (x, y, t) for each  parameter.
In using the above method, the designation of m̂ = m as the

number of basic dimensions needed to express the n
variables dimensionally is not always correct. The correct
value for m̂ is the rank of the dimensional matrix, i.e., the
next smaller square subgroup with a nonzero determinant.
Dimensional matrix = A1 ……… An

M a11 ……… a1n
L
aij = exponent
t a31 ……… a3n of M, L, or t in
o ……… o Ai
: :
: :
: :
o ……… o
n x n matrix
Rank of dimensional matrix equals size of next smaller

sub-group with nonzero determinant
Example: Hydraulic jump (see section 15.2)

Say we assume that
V1 = V1(, g, , y1, y2)

or V2 = V1y1/y2
Dimensional analysis is a procedure whereby the functional

relationship can be expressed in terms of r nondimensional
parameters in which r < n = number of variables. Such a
reduction is significant since in an experimental or
numerical investigation a reduced number of experiments
or calculations is extremely beneficial
1) , g fixed; vary  Represents

2) ,  fixed; vary g many, many
3) , g fixed; vary  experiments
In general: F(A1, A2, …, An) = 0 dimensional form
f(1, 2, … r) = 0 nondimensional

form with reduced
or 1 = 1 (2, …, r) # of variables
It can be shown that
V1 y 
Fr   Fr  2 
gy 1  y1 
neglect  ( drops out as will be shown)

thus only need one experiment to determine the functional
relationship
Fr2 
1
2
x  x2  x Fr
0 0
1/ 2
1  ½ .61
Fr   x1  x  1 1
2 
2 1.7
5 3.9
For this particular application we can determine the

functional relationship through the use of a control volume
analysis: (neglecting  and bottom friction)
x-momentum equation:  Fx   Vx V  A
y12 y 22
   V1 V1 y1   V2V2 y 2  Note: each term
2 2 in equation must
 2
 
  
have some units:
y1  y 22  V22 y 2  V12 y1 principle of
2 g dimensional
homogeneity,
i.e., in this case,
continuity equation: V1y1 = V2y2 force per unit
width N/m
V1 y1
V2 
y2
y12   y 2  
2
 y 
1      V12 y1  1  1
2   y1   g  y2 
 
pressure forces = inertial forces

due to gravity
 y2  3
1   y1
now divide equation by  y1 
gy 2
V12 1 y 2  y 2 
 1   dimensionless equation
gy 1 2 y1  y1 
ratio of inertia forces/gravity forces = (Froude number)2
note: Fr = Fr(y2/y1) do not need to know both y2

and y1, only ratio to get Fr
Also, shows in an experiment it is not necessary to vary
, y1, y2, V1, and V2, but only Fr and y2/y1
Next, can get an estimate of hL from the energy equation

(along free surface from 12)
V12 V22
 y1   y2  h L
2g 2g
y 2  y1 3
hL 
4 y1 y 2
 f() due to assumptions made in deriving 1-D steady

flow energy equations
Exponent method to determine j’s for Hydraulic jump

F(g,V1,y1,y2,,) = 0 n=6
use V1, y1,  as L L M M
LL 3
repeating variables 2
T T L LT Assume m̂ = m to
avoid evaluating
m=3  r=n–m=3
1 = V1x1 y1y1 z1 
rank of 6 x 6
dimensional matrix
= (LT-1)x1 (L)y1 (ML-3)z1 ML-1T-1
L x1 + y1  3z1  1 = 0 y1 = 3z1 + 1  x1 = -1
T -x1 1=0 x1 = -1
M z1 +1=0 z1 = -1
 y1V1
1  or  1

y1V1  = Reynolds number = Re
1
2 = V1x2 y1y2 z2 g

= (LT-1)x2 (L)y2 (ML-3)z2 LT-2
L x2 + y2  3z2 + 1 = 0 y2 =  1  x2 = 1
T -x2 2=0 x2 = -2
M z2 = 0
2 gy1 V1
 2  V1 y1 g   21 / 2 
gy1 = Froude number = Fr
2
V1
3 = V1x3 y1y3 z3 y2

= (LT-1)x3 (L)y3 (ML-3)z3 L
L x3 + y3  3z3 + 1 = 0 y3 =  1
T -x3 = 0
M -3z3 = 0
y y
3  2  31  1 = depth ratio
y1 y2
f(1, 2, 3) = 0
or, 2 = 2(1, 3)
i.e., Fr = Fr(Re, y2/y1)
if we neglect  then Re drops out
V1 y 
Fr   f  2 
gy 1  y1 
Note that dimensional analysis does not provide the actual

functional relationship. Recall that previously we used
control volume analysis to derive
V12 1 y 2  y 2 
 1  
gy 1 2 y1  y1 
the actual relationship between F vs. y2/y1
F = F(Re, Fr, y1/y2)

or Fr = Fr(Re, y1/y2)
dimensional matrix:
g V1 y1 y2  
M 0 0 0 0 1 1
L 1 1 1 1 3 -1 Size of next smaller
t -2 -1 0 0 0 -1 subgroup with nonzero
0 0 0 0 0 0 determinant = 3 = rank
of matrix
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
Common Dimensionless Parameters for Fluid

Flow Problems
Most common physical quantities of importance in fluid flow
problems are: (without heat transfer)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
V, , g, , , K, p, L
velocity density gravity viscosity surface compressibility pressure length
tension change
n=8 m=3  5 dimensionless parameters
⁄
VL inertia forces V 2 / L
1) Reynolds number =  Re
 viscous forces V / L2
⁄
Rcrit distinguishes among flow regions: laminar or turbulent
value varies depending upon flow situation
V inertia forces V 2 / L
2) Froude number =  Fr
gL gravity force 
important parameter in free-surface flows
V 2 L inertia force V 2 / L
3) Weber number =  We
 surface tension force  / L2
important parameter at gas-liquid or liquid-liquid interfaces ⁄
and when these surfaces are in contact with a boundary
V V inertia force
4) Mach number =   Ma
k / a compressibility force
speed of sound in liquid ⁄
Paramount importance in high speed flow (V > c)
p pressure force p / L
5) Pressure Coefficient =  Cp
V 2 inertia force V 2 / L
(Euler Number) ⁄
Nondimensionalization of the Basic Equation
It is very useful and instructive to nondimensionalize the

basic equations and boundary conditions. Consider the
situation for  and  constant and for flow with a free
surface
Continuity: V  0
DV
Momentum:  p  z    2 V

Dt
g = specific weight
Boundary Conditions:
1) fixed solid surface: V  0
2) inlet or outlet: V = Vo p = po
3) free surface: w

t
p  p a   R x1  R y1  
(z = ) surface tension
All variables are now nondimensionalized in terms of  and
U = reference velocity
L = reference length
V tU
V*  t* 
U L
x p  gz
x*  p* 
L U 2
All equations can be put in nondimensional form by

making the substitution
VV U
*
  t * U 
 * 
t t t L t *
  
 î  ĵ  k̂
x y z
 x *  y*  z *
 * î  * ĵ  * k̂
x x y y z z
1
 *
L
and
u 1 

x L x *
Uu 
* U u *
L x *
 
etc.
*  V  0
*
Result:
DV * 
 *p*  *2 V
*
Dt VL
1) V  0
*
Re-1
V p
2) V *  o p*  o 2
U V
3) w  *
* * p gL
p*  o 2  2 z * 

R *1
x  R *1
y 
t V U V 2 L
pressure coefficient
Fr-2 We-1 V=U
Similarity and Model Testing
Flow conditions for a model test are completely similar if

all relevant dimensionless parameters have the same
corresponding values for model and prototype
i model = i prototype i = 1, r = n - m̂ (m)
Enables extrapolation from model to full scale
However, complete similarity usually not possible
Therefore, often it is necessary to use Re, or Fr, or Ma

scaling, i.e., select most important  and accommodate
others as best possible
Types of Similarity:
1) Geometric Similarity (similar length scales):

A model and prototype are geometrically similar if and
only if all body dimensions in all three coordinates have
the same linear-scale ratios
 = Lm/Lp ( < 1)
1/10 or 1/50
2) Kinematic Similarity (similar length and time scales):
The motions of two systems are kinematically similar if
homologous (same relative position) particles lie at
homologous points at homologous times
3) Dynamic Similarity (similar length, time and force (or

mass) scales):
in addition to the requirements for kinematic similarity
the model and prototype forces must be in a constant
ratio
Model Testing in Water (with a free surface)
F(D, L, V, g, , ) = 0
 n = 6 and m = 3 thus r = n – m = 3 pi terms
In a dimensionless form,
f(CD, Fr, Re) = 0
or CD = f(Fr, Re)
where
Vm Vp
If Frm  Frp or 
gL m gL p
Vm  Vp Froude scaling

Vm L m Vp L p
and Rem = Rep or 
m p
 m Vm Lm
   3/ 2
 p V p Lp
Then,
or
However, impossible to achieve, since

if   1 10 
, m  3.1 108
m 2
s  1.2  107
m 2
s
For mercury   1.2 10 m s
7 2
Alternatively one could maintain Re similarity and obtain
Vm = Vp/
But, if   1 10 , Vm  10Vp ,
High speed testing is difficult and expensive.
Vm2 Vp2

gmLm gpLp
g m Vm2 L p
 2
g p Vp L m
g m Vm2 L p
 2
g p Vp L m
gm 1 1
 2    3
gp  
gp
gm  3

But if   1 10 , gm  1000 g p
Impossible to achieve
Model Testing in Air
F(D, L, V, , , a) = 0
 n = 6 and m = 3 thus r = n – m = 3 pi terms
In a dimensionless form,
f(CD, Re, Ma) = 0

or
CD = f(Re, Ma)
where
Vm L m Vp L p
If 
m p
Vm Vp
and 
am ap
Then,
or
1
m Lm a m 
However,   
 p L p  a p 
again not possible
Therefore, in wind tunnel testing Re scaling is also violated

Model Studies w/o free surface

1
c p  p V 2 See
2
High Re text
Model Studies with free surface
In hydraulics model studies, Fr scaling used, but lack of We

similarity can cause problems. Therefore, often models are
distorted, i.e. vertical scale is increased by 10 or more
compared to horizontal scale
Ship model testing:
CT = f(Re, Fr) = Cw(Fr) + Cv(Re)
Cwm = CTm  Cv
Vm determined Based on flat plate of
for Fr scaling same surface area
CTs = Cwm + Cv

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7

Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013 1

Chapter 7 Dimensional Analysis and Modeling

The Need for Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional analysis is a process of formulating fluid

2. Helps in understanding physics

3. Useful in data analysis and modeling

4. Fundamental to concept of similarity and model testing

Enables scaling for different physical dimensions and

Dimensions and Equations

Basic dimensions: F, L, and t or M, L, and t

In a physical problem including n dimensional variables in

F(A1, A2, …, An) = 0

f(1, 2, … r) = 0

Ai’s = dimensional variables required to formulate problem

j’s = nondimensional parameters consisting of groupings

F, f represents functional relationships between An’s and

m̂ = rank of dimensional matrix

Methods for determining i’s

1. Functional Relationship Method

Identify functional relationships F(Ai) and f(j)by first

2. Nondimensionalize governing differential equations and

Select appropriate quantities for nondimensionalizing the

Put GDE, IC, and BC in nondimensional form

Exponent Method for Determining j’s

1) determine the n essential quantities

For example let A1, A2, and A3 contain M, L, and t (not

In these equations the exponents are determined so that

In using the above method, the designation of m̂ = m as the

Dimensional matrix = A1 ……… An

Rank of dimensional matrix equals size of next smaller

Example: Hydraulic jump (see section 15.2)

Say we assume that

V1 = V1(, g, , y1, y2)

Dimensional analysis is a procedure whereby the functional

1) , g fixed; vary  Represents

In general: F(A1, A2, …, An) = 0 dimensional form

f(1, 2, … r) = 0 nondimensional

It can be shown that

neglect  ( drops out as will be shown)

For this particular application we can determine the

pressure forces = inertial forces

ratio of inertia forces/gravity forces = (Froude number)2

note: Fr = Fr(y2/y1) do not need to know both y2

Next, can get an estimate of hL from the energy equation

 f() due to assumptions made in deriving 1-D steady

Exponent method to determine j’s for Hydraulic jump

2 = V1x2 y1y2 z2 g

3 = V1x3 y1y3 z3 y2

if we neglect  then Re drops out

Note that dimensional analysis does not provide the actual

the actual relationship between F vs. y2/y1

F = F(Re, Fr, y1/y2)

Common Dimensionless Parameters for Fluid

Nondimensionalization of the Basic Equation

It is very useful and instructive to nondimensionalize the

All variables are now nondimensionalized in terms of  and

All equations can be put in nondimensional form by

Similarity and Model Testing

Flow conditions for a model test are completely similar if

i model = i prototype i = 1, r = n - m̂ (m)

Enables extrapolation from model to full scale

However, complete similarity usually not possible