Dimensional analysis and similitude

Edgar Buckingham (1867-1940)

 Period of pendulum

The pendulum period, tP de-

pends on d, g, θmax
But How?
tp = f (θmax , d, g)
θ d
Dimensions of left and side and
right hand are equal.
Try f = F (θmax )dx g y
g
θmax has no dimensions. F can be anything

dim(tP ) = dim(dx )dim(g y )

T = Lx Ly T −2y

Only solution is 1 = −2y , x + y = 0 so

p
tp = F (θmax ) d/g
 Why dimensional analysis?
Suppose we want to investigate the steady-state flow
of water down a smooth, circular pipe of diameter D
? The property of interest is the pressure drop over a
fixed length (a friction/viscosity effect). This could
depend on
∆pl = f (D, ρ, µ, v)

So one can do experi-

ments to try and elu-
cidate

But, how is it possible to vary ρ !

Also need to try and combine results!
 Reduction of variables

Rather than working

with all variables, the
factors can be organized
into two dimensionless
products or groups.

 
D∆pl ρvD
2
=φ
ρv µ
There are now 2 variables instead of 5. Once φ is
known, (by experiments on a convenient fluid), the
result would be applicable to any combination of
pipe or liquid.
 The purpose of dimensional analysis
• Want to determine which variables to study.

• Want to determine the parameters that

significantly affect the system.

• Reduce the cost/effort of experimental analysis

by studying the most important groups of
variables.

• The ideas can be used for any physical system.

• This will help in the design of scale test models

 Buckingham Pi theorem
If an equation involving k variables is dimensionally
homogeneous, it can be reduced to a relationship
among k − r independent dimensionless products,
where r is the minimum number of reference
dimensions required to describe the variables.

The basic idea is based on dimensional homogeneity.

Suppose, the k variables are related

u1 = f (u2 , u3 , u4 , . . . , uk )

then dimensions of LHS and RHS are the same.

The problem is then reorganized into a function
involving k − r dimensionless Π products.

Π1 = f (Π2 , Π3 , Π4 , . . . , Πk−r )

The number is reference dimensions is almost always

the number of M, L, T dimensions that referenced in
the problem.
 Buckingham Pi theorem: Pendulum

The variables are tp , d, g, θmax

The reference dimensions are T and
θ d
L.
Now θmax is dimensionless already.
g
So what is dimensionless product involving d, g, tp

dim(d)x dim(g)y dim(tp )z = Lx Ly T −2y T z

= Lx+y T z−2y
⇒x+y =0
−2y + z = 0

Just put x =1 . Then

 y = −1 and z = −2 .
d d
So θmax = h 2
or 2 = g(θmax )
gtp gtp
The functional form is determined by experiment.
 Method of repeating variables
This is a recipe to determine the dimensionless
groupings for a problem.
1. List all the k variables involved in the problem
Most important step. Assumes you know
something about problem! Required
understanding of variables that govern problem
and physical laws that apply. Typically have
geometry effects (pipe radius, length), fluid
properties (density and viscosity), external
effects (gravity and pressure). Variables should
be independent; no point in having pipe radius
and area, or ρ, γ, g .
2. Decompose variables in terms of the basic dime
These are typically either M, L, T (or F, L, T
by treating force, F as basic).
3. Determine number of Π terms Usually, this
is k − r . In some cases, might have variables
that only depend on M/T 2 and L . The number
of reference dimensions would be 2 (not 3 ).
 Method of repeating variables
4. Select a number of repeating variables One
designates certain variables as repeating. The
number of repeating variables is the same as the
number of reference variables. All the reference
dimensions must be included in list of repeating
variables. Each repeating variable must
dimensionally independent from the others (it is
not possible to form a dimensionless number
from the repeating variables).
Often interested in how one variable depends on
others, usual to make Π term with this variable
as the (non-repeating) dependent variable.

5. Form a Π term Pick a non-repeating variable.

Form a dimensionless product by combining the
with the repeating variables. e.g. if u1 is a
non-repeating variable and w1 , w2 , w3 are
repeating, then form u1 w1a w2b w3c . Choose a, b, c
to make product dimensionless.
 Method of repeating variables
6. Make a new Π term for each non-repeating var
Step 5 is repeated for each non-repeating
variable. The number of Π terms should be the
same as that identified in step 3.

7. Check that each Π term is dimensionless.

It is easy to make an algebraic mistake in this
analysis so a check at the end is worthwhile.
Decompose each variable into M, L, T or F, L, T
and verify it is homogeneous. Choose opposite
decomposition to that used during steps 1 to 6.

8. Write the functional relation between Π terms.

Typically, one writes

Π1 = φ(Π2 , . . . , Πk−r )

This is far as the analysis can go. Further details

about φ requires experimental investigation
using Π terms as independent variables.
 Losses in a pipe
What is the pressure loss in a pipe, length l ,
diameter D , for a fluid of density ρ , viscosity µ
traveling at velocity v ?

δp = f (v, D, l, µ, ρ)

All variables into basic dimensions

• dim(δp) = M L−1 T −2

• dim(D) = L

• dim(l) = L

• dim(µ) = M L−1 T −1

• dim(v) = LT −1

• dim(ρ) = M L−3

There are 6 variables and 3 reference dimensions.

So want 6 − 3 = 3 Π terms. Need to select 3
repeating variables. Will choose D , v and ρ as the
repeating variables and δp , l and µ as
non-repeating variables.
 Losses in a pipe
Want δp to be subject of equation.

Π1 = δp Da v b ρc
dim(Π1 ) = (M L−1 T −2 )La (LT −1 )b (M L−3 )c
= M 1+c L−1+a+b−3c T −2−b
M ⇒ 1 + c = 0 ⇒ c = −1
T ⇒ −2 − b = 0 ⇒ b = −2
L ⇒ −1 + a + b − 3c = 0 ⇒ a = 0

so dimensionless group is
δp
Π1 = 2
v ρ
Now do l term

Π 2 = l D a v b ρc
dim(Π2 ) = (L)La (LT −1 )b (M L−3 )c

trivial to show that (a, b, c) = (−1, 0, 0) is solution.

l
Π2 =
D
 Losses in a pipe
Now do viscosity µ

Π3 = µ D a v b ρc
dim(Π1 ) = (M L−1 T −1 )La (LT −1 )b (M L−3 )c
= M 1+c L−1+a+b−3c T −1−b
M ⇒ 1 + c = 0 ⇒ c = −1
T ⇒ −1 − b = 0 ⇒ b = −1
L ⇒ −1 + a + b − 3c = 0
⇒ a = 1 + 3c − b = 1 − 3 + 1 = −1

so dimensionless group is
µ
Π3 =
Dρv
So the general equation must be

Π1 = h(Π2 , Π3 )
 
δp l µ
2
= h ,
ρv D Dρv
 
δp l
2
= h , Re Re = Reynolds number
ρv D
 Just one Π term
What happens if the number, k − r terms is 1?
Consider the relation between distance traveled for a
body undergoing constant acceleration for a given
time (starting from rest). There are 3 variables

dim(t) = T dim(∆x) = L dim(a) = L/T 2

With 2 basic dimensions, L, T , there is

k − r = 3 − 2 = 1 required Π term. With ∆x as
dependent variable

Π1 = ∆x ag th
dim(Π1 ) = L(Lg T −2g )T h = L1+g T h−2g

Solution is g = −1 and h = −2 .
∆x
Π1 = 2
= C = Constant
at
⇒ ∆x = Cat2

Look familiar?
 Some considerations
The most important step in a Π analysis is the
listing of the relevant variables. The rest is purely
mechanical.
Some questions to consider. How accurate is the
desired answer. Best to value simplicity ahead of
precision. Variable aspects are
geometry Just lengths and angle (angles are
dimensionless). Geometry invariably plays a
role.
material properties These would include density,
viscosity, heat capacity. These are parameters
that relate external effects and their responses.
external effects Anything that effects a change in
the system, forces, pressures, gravity, velocities.
The categories are not rigid, it is a classification to
help identify important quantities. Note, if a variable
is constant, it still needs to be included if it has any
impact. It is the dimensions that are important, not
the specific values and whether they are constant.
 Uniqueness of Π terms
There is some arbitrariness in Π analysis. What
would happen if a slightly different set of repeating
variable were chosen?
One would get a different set of dimensionless
variables! For pressure loss in pipe, we got
 
δp l µ
2
= h ,
ρv D Dρv
Choosing l instead of D as repeating variables
would give
 
δp D µ
2
= h ,
ρv l lρv

Which form is best (D 2 /l2 is also dimensionless)?

What do you want to measure? Although function
forms may vary, number of Π terms does not change.
 Common dimensionless numbers
Dimensionless groupings of physical variables provide
the natural groupings in which to develop physical
relations. The reoccurence of these dimensional
groupings means they are given their own names.
Note, the functional relations for real-life fluid flow
rarely exist as closed form expressions.

Name Definition Interpretation

ρvD inertial force
Reynolds number Re = µ viscous force
v inertial force
Froude number Fr = √gD gravitational force
Euler number Eu = ρvp2 pressure force
inertial force
Mach number Ma = vc inertial force
compressibility force
ρv 2 inertial force
Cauchy Number Ca = Ev compressibility force
inertial (local) force
Strouhal Number Sr = ωD v inertial (convective) force
ρv 2 l inertial force
Weber number We = σ surface tension force
FD inertial force
Drag coefficient CD = 1 ρAv 2 surface tension force
2
 Reynolds number, Re

ρvD inertial force

Re = =
µ viscous force
The Reynolds number is the ratio of the inertial to
the viscous forces. The critical Reynolds number
denotes the boundary between laminar and turbulent
flow (it is ≈ 2000 for flow down a pipe).
Low Re indicate laminar flow (“creeping” flows
typically have Re < 1 . Large Reynolds numbers
indicate turbulent flow.
 Froude number, Fr

v inertial force
Fr = √ =
gl gravitational force
Gravity can effect the flow of fluids.
Discovered by Froude when looking at waves of
model ships in tanks. The number of waves along
the length of the ship was the same when the
velocity divided by the square root of the ship length
was the same.
The Froude numbers occurs in gravity driven flows
and wave behaviour on the surface of a fluid. Flows
involving a free surface often involve the Froude
number.
 Mach number, Ma

v inertial force
Ma = =
c compressibility force
The ratio is of fluid speed to speed of sound is
relevant in two areas
It is the most important correlating parameter when
fluid velocities are near the local sonic velocity.
Compressible fluids can be treated like
incompressible fluids when Ma < 0.3 .
 Modeling and similitude
Many projects involving structures, aircraft, ships,
harbors, rivers, dams involve models.
A model is a representation of the physical system
that can be used to predict the behavior of a
prototype in some respect. The model is usually
smaller than the prototype. For complete similitude,
we require
geometric similitude The model should be an exact
scale copy of the prototype. It should include
the surface roughness and the object dimensions.
kinematic similitude The velocity at any point in
the model flow must be proportional to the
velocity at the corresponding point in the
prototype flow (includes directions and
magnitudes).
dynamic similitude This is achieved when all forces
in the model are proportional to all forces in the
prototype. Kinematic similitude is necessary but
not sufficient for dynamic similitude.
 Dimensionless numbers and similitude
Complete similitude requires geometric, kinematic
and dynamic similitude.
Consider a fluid flow system written in terms of Π
terms as
Π1 = φ(Π2 , . . . , Πk−r )
If

Π2,model = Π2,prototype
Π3,model = Π3,prototype
... = ...
Πk−r,model = Πk−r,prototype

Then Π1,model = Π1,prototype .

Complete similitude can be achieved by enforcing
geometric similitude and making the dimensionless
groupings of the model the same as the desired
prototype. Generally, not possible to get Reynolds,
Weber, Froude, Mach numbers all the same. So
choose most important.
 Example of models
Suppose we want to predict
the drag force of a fluid on
a large rectangular plate by
v h
using tests on a small plate.
This can be used to deter-
mine the force of wind on a w
building.
The object will have a height of h , a width of w ,
the fluid has a density of ρ , a viscosity of µ and is
moving with a velocity of v . Using the Buckingham
Pi method (with h, v and ρ as repeating variables)
it can be shown that
 
FD w ρvw
2 2
=φ ,
ρv w h µ
Suppose we want a 1 : R scale model. So the height
of the model will be R times smaller than the height
of the prototype.
 Example of models
The following conditions must be obeyed
h hm
=
w wm
ρvw ρ m v m wm
=
µ µm
The dependent Π term for the prototype and model
will be equal under these conditions
FD FD m
=
ρw2 v 2 2 v2
ρ m wm m
ρ w2 v 2
FD = F Dm 2 v2
ρ m wm m

The first condition means h = Rhm and w = Rwm .

ρvw ρ m v m wm ρm v m Rρv
The second = or = .
µ µm µm µ
 Example of models
The force on the prototype will be
ρ w2 v 2
FD = F Dm 2 v2
ρ m wm m

when
ρm v m Rρv
=
µm µ
Same fluid (air) used for prototype and model
Rρvµm Rvνm
vm = =
ρm µ ν
So if ρ and µ do not change then velocities need be
R times larger than for prototype.
Suppose want to test prototype at 5 m/s . Then
model speed would be 15 × 5 = 75 m/s . This is
achievable, but to test higher prototype speeds will
run into compressibility effects.
 Achieving similitude
The force on the prototype will be
ρ w2 v 2
FD = F Dm 2 v2
ρ m wm m

when
Rρvµm Rvνm
vm = =
ρm µ ν
Problem, would need velocities of 15 × 20 = 300 m/s
to determine FD at 20 m/s .
Solution A, use water at vm ≈ 30 m/s in a water
tunnel since νwater /νair ≈ 0.1 .
Solution B, increase ρm and so decrease vm .
Example using Froude Number similarity
A spillway with a width of 20.0
m is design to carry 125.0
m3 s−1 at a flood stage. A
1:15 model is constructed to
study the flow characteristics
through the spill way.
Determine the model width and flowrate. What
operating times for the model is equivalent to a 24 hr
period of the prototype. Viscosity and surface
tension are to be neglected.
Example using Froude Number similarity
The spillway can be regarded as having a width w , a
height h . Variables are

• dim(w) = L

• dim(h) = L

• dim(g) = LT −1

• dim(ρ) = M L−3

• dim(v) = LT −3

Choose repeating variables as w, g, ρ . Applying the

Buckingham Π analysis (repeating variable are w
and g ) yields
 
v h
√ =φ
gw w
The density term just does not survive the
dimensional analysis.
Example using Froude Number similarity
For a 1 : 15 model
wm 1
= λc =
w 15
w 20
⇒ wm = = = 1.33 m
15 15
Also hm = h/15 = h/λc . Require Froude number
similarity
vm v
=
g m wm gw
Now we cannot change g ! So
r
vm wm p
= = λc
v w
The flow rate is Q = vA , so
Qm vm Am v m h m wm
= =
Q vA vhw
√
w m wm wm
= √ = λc5/2
www
Example using Froude Number similarity
The model flow rate is

Qm = Qλc5/2 = 125/153 = 0.143 m3 /s

By using scaled geometries and Froude numbers we

are also implicitly scaling the rate of time elapse.
• Consider distance water travels in time, ∆t .
• For model Dm = vm ∆tm
• For prototype D = v∆t .
• Now Dm /D = λc = 1/15 .
√ p
• Also vm /v = λc = 1/15

vm ∆tm Dm
= = λc
v∆t D
v p
⇒ ∆tm = ∆t λc = ∆t λc
vm
∆tm = 0.2582 × ∆t

In order to determine the amount of water that flows

over the prototype spillway in 24 hours we need to
operate the prototype for only 0.25282 × 24 = 6.20
hr .