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Fundamentals of Antennas and Radiating Systems
Fundamentals of Antennas and Radiating Systems
Introduction:
Fundamental of Radiation:
Radiation is the process of emitting energy from a source. Electromagnetic radiation can
be at all frequencies except zero (DC), but radiation at various frequencies may take
different forms. At relatively lower frequencies it is in the form of electromagnetic waves,
in the visible domain the emission is in the form of light and at still higher frequencies it
may be in the form of ultra violet or X-ray radiation. The energy associated with the
radiation depends on the frequency.
Time varying currents radiate electromagnetic waves. A time varying current generates
time varying electric and magnetic fields. When such fields exist, power is generated and
propagated. Although, theoretically any structure carrying time varying current can
radiate electromagnetic waves, all structures are not equally efficient in doing that. While
in many applications we try to reduce the radiation, when radiation is intended, launching
of waves into space is accomplished with the aid of specially designed structures called
antennas. If the time varying current density established on an antenna structure is
unknown, the radiated fields can be calculated without great difficulty. A more difficult
problem is determination of current density J on an antenna such that the resultant field
will satisfy the required boundary conditions on the antenna surface.
As we have mentioned that if the time varying current density J on the antenna is known,
the radiated E and H fields can be determined. However, it is often advantageous to
compute the radiated fields in an indirect manner, by introducing potential functions. We
illustrate the procedure below.
In a region not containing tree charges, for time harmonic case we can write Maxwell's
equations as:
Ѵ E = 0 ................................................ (7.1c)
Ѵ H = 0 ............................................... (7.1d)
Ѵ Ѵ E = -jwm Ѵ H
= -jwm ( J + jwm E )
= -jwm J + w 2 me E
. = 0 we can write
Using �E
By solving equation (7.2) electric field E can be determined for a specified current
density J and H can be computed from E by using (7.1b). However, as mentioned such
direct computations are often difficult. Simplification can be obtained by introducing
potential functions.
. = 0 , we can write
Since �B
B = Ѵ A …………………………………... (7.3)
.( = A)
Because �Ѵ 0 and A is the vector potential.
Ѵ E = - jwѴ A
or, Ѵ ( E + jw A ) = 0
A curl tree vector function can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar function.
Therefore we assume,
Ѵ Ѵ A = Ѵ B = mѴ H = m ( J + jwe E )
Or, �( �. A ) - � A = m �
J + jwe ( - jw A - �f ) �
2
� �
�2 A + m 2 A = - m J
Equation (7.&) can be solved to determine A and when A is known we can find,
1
H= Ѵ A ………………………. (7.8)
m
� �. A �
E = - jw A - �� �
�- jwme �
�( �. A )
E = - jw A + ………………. (7.9)
jwme
From equations (7.7) - (7.9) we find that both E and H can be computed when the vector
potential A is known.
Radiated field of a Herzian dipole: In the previous section we have outlined the
procedure for computing the electric magnetic field distribution of a known current
density J. In this section we consider the radiation from a shaft current filament. We
consider an ideal short linear element (the length of the element dl << operating
wavelength) with current considered uniform over its length. More complex antennas can
be considered to be made up of a large number of such differential antennas with proper
magnitude and phase of their current. For current element under consideration, by
continuity, equal and opposite time varying charges must exist on both ends of dl/2 so
that such elements are also called a Herzian dipole.
Fig 7.2
As shown in the Fig 7.2, the current element is located at the origin and oriented in the z-
direction. We consider the time harmonic case where the current varies sinusoid ally with
time and I represents the current phasor. For a z-directed current density located in free
space, from equation (7.7) we can write
Since the current element is infinitesimally small, it can be regarded as a point source so
that away from the source Az will be a function of r only. Therefore equ.(7.11) can be
written as:
1 ��2 �Az � 2
2 �r �+ k0 Az = 0 .............. (7.12)
r �r� �r �
y
If we substitute Az = , then
r
�
Az y
�
= r -1 - r -2y
�r �r
Az � 1 �2y
1 ��2 �
or, 2 � r �=
r �r� � r � r �r2
1 �2y y
2
+ k02 = 0
r �r r
�2y
Or, 2
+ k02y = 0 …………………(7.13)
�r
- jk r jk r
Equation (7.13) has solution of the form C1e 0 and C1e 0 where C1 and C2 are
- jk r
constants. Out of these two solutions, C1e 0 represents a wave solution which
represents an outward traveling wave. Therefore we consider this solution.
y e - jk0 r
Hence, Az = = C1 ………………………. (7.14)
r r
C1
Az = . ............. .................................................(7.15)
r
(7.16) is recognized to be as the Poisson's equation and therefore and therefore the
solution can be written as,
m0 Jz
Az =
4p �r dv ' ................................................. (7.17)
v'
Both (7.15) and (7.17) represents the solutions of the equation (7.10) for k = 0.
From (7.14) and (7.15) we observe that time varying soln (7.14) is obtained by
multiplying static case solution (7.15) by multiplying the factor e - jk0 r . In an analysis
manner we can write the time varying solution from (7.17) as,
m0 J z e - jk0 r
4p V�
Az = dv ' ....................................... (7.18)
'
r
m0 e - jk0 r
4p V�
A= J dv ' ........................................ (7.19)
'
r
If the source is placed at a position (x', y', z') instead of origin, the vector potential at a
point (x, y, z) can be written as
m0 e - jkR
A ( x, y , z ) = J ( x ', y ', z ' )
4p V�
dv ' ......... (7.20)
R
v
Where R = .
( x - x ') + ( y - y ') + ( z - z ' )
2 2 2
Returning back to our problem of computation of radiated field for the current element I
dl, we observe that the current I is assumed to be constant over the length of the dipole
and J z dv ' can be replaced with Idz ' . Further, dl being very small r �R , and hence, we
can write
dl
mI 2
Az = 0 e- jk0 r �dz '
4p r dl
-
2
� m0 Idl e - jk0 r
�� �
�
A = a3 �a r cos q - aq sin q �……………………….. (7.22)
4p r � �
e - jk0 r �
E = jh0 Idlk0 sin q aq ………………….. (7.24a)
4p r
e - jk0 r �
H = jIdlk0 sin q af …………………….. (7.24b)
4p r
We find that the radiated field has transverse components only and they satisfy the
relation
�
E = -h0 ar �H ..................................................... (7.25a)
1 �
H = ar �E ....................................................... (7.25b)
h0
� I h0 ( dl ) k0 sin q � is
2 2 2 2
1
The Poynting vector of the radiation field Pav = Re �
� E �H �= ar
�2 � 32p 2 r 2
directed radially outward.
The terms varying as 1/r2 and 1/r3 in reactive field for r < l0 . These fields do not
contribute to the radiated power; rather they represent stored electric and magnetic energy
in space in the vicinity of the antenna and account for the reactive past of the impedance
seen looking into the antenna terminals. Therefore, in antenna impedance calculation, the
near fields are to be taken into account.
An antenna does not radiate uniformly in all directions. For the sake of a reference, we
consider a hypothetical antenna called an isotropic radiator having equal radiation in all
directions. A directional antenna is one which can radiate or receive electromagnetic
waves more effectively in some directions than in others. The relative distribution of
radiated power as a function of direction in space (i.e., as function of and ) is called the
radiation pattern of the antenna. Instead of 3D surface, it is common practice to show
planar cross section radiation pattern. E-plane and H-plane patterns give two most
important views. The E-plane pattern is a view obtained from a section containing
maximum value of the radiated field and electric field lies in the plane of the section.
Similarly when such a section is taken such that the plane of the section contains H field
and the direction of maximum radiation.
Fig 7.3(a) shows a typical radiation pattern plot in polar coordinates and Fig 7.3(b) shows
the same in rectangle coordinates.
The main lobe contains the direction of maximum radiation. However in some antennas,
more than one major lobe may exist. Lobe other than major lobe are called minor lobes.
Minor lobes can be further represent radiation in the considered direction and require to
be minimized.
HPBW or half power beam width refers to the angular width between the points at which
the radiated power per unit area is one half of the maximum.
Similarly FNBW (First null beam width) refers to the angular width between the first two
nulls as shown in Fig 7.3. By the term beam width we usually refer to 3 dB beam width
or HPBW.
We have already mentioned that an antenna does not radiate uniformly in all directions.
Directivity function D ( q , f ) describes the variation of the radiation intensity. The
directivity function D ( q , f ) is defined by
dPr
If Pr is the radiated power, the gives the amount of power radiated per unit solid
dW
angle. Had this power beam uniformly radiated in all directions then average power
P
radiated per unit solid angle is r .
4p
dPr dPr
\D ( q , f ) = d W = 4p d W ............................. (7.27)
Pr Pr
4p
In defining directivity function total radiated power is taken as the reference. Another
parameter called the gain of an antenna is defined in the similar manner which takes into
account the total input power rather than the total radiated power is used as the reference.
The amount of power given as input to the antenna is not fully radiated.
G ( q ,f ) = h D ( q ,f )
Another parameter which incorporates the gain is effective isotropic radiated power or
EIRP which is defined as the product of the input power and maximum gain or simply the
gain. An antenna with a gain of 100 and input power of 1 W is equally effective as an
antenna having a gain of 50 and input power 2 W.
Radiation resistance:
The radiation resistance of an antenna is defined as the equivalent resistance that would
dissipate the same amount power as is radiated by the antenna. For the elementary current
element we have discussed so far. From equation (7.26) we find that radiated power
density
I h0 ( dl ) k02 sin 2 q �
2 2
Pav = ar
32p 2 r 2
\ Radiated power
2
I h0 dl 2 k02 p 2p
Pr = � � sin 2q r 2 sin q dq df
32p r q =0 f =0
2 2
2
I h0 dl 2 k02 2p 2p
= � df � sin 3q dq
32p 2
q =0 f =0
I h0 ( k0 dl )
2 2
Further,
�
dPr = Pav .r 2 sin q dq df a r
�
= Pav . a r r 2 d W
I h0 ( k0 dl ) sin 2 q
2 2
dP ……………… (7.30)
\ r =
dW 32p 2
p
Directivity D = D ( q , f ) which occurs at q = .
max
2
Substituting h0 ; 120p
2
480p 3 �dl �
Rr = � �
6p �l0 �
2
�dl �
Rr = 80p � �………………….. (7.32)
2
�l0 �
For such an elementary dipole antenna the principal E and H plane pattern are shown in
Fig 7.4(a) and (b).
Fig 7.4 (a) Principal E plane pattern of an elementary Fig 7.4 (b) Principal H plane pattern of an elementary
Dipole. Dipole.
The bandwidth (3 dB beam width) can be found to be 900 in the E plane.
Let Pinc represents the power density of the incident wave at the location of the receiving
antenna and PL represents the maximum average power delivered to the load under
matched conditions with the receiving antenna properly oriented with respect to the
polarization of the incident wave.
We can write,
E2
where Pinc = and the term Aem is called the maximum effective aperture of the
2h0
antenna. Aem is related to the directivity of the antenna D as,
4p
D= Aem
l2
If the antenna is lossy then some amount of the power intercepted by the antenna will be
dissipated in the antenna.
G =hD
4p 4p
2 (
G= h Aem ) = 2 Ae ....................................................(7.35)
l l
Ae
If the antenna has a physical aperture A then aperture efficiency h a =
A
Voc
he = m ……………………………….. (7.36)
E
To a generator feeding a transmitting antenna, the antenna appears as a lead. In the same
manner, the receiver circuitry connected to a receiving antenna's output terminal will
appear as load impedance. Both transmitting and receiving antennas can be represented
by equivalent circuits as shown by figure 7.6(a) and figure 7.6(b).
Fig 7.6 (a): Equivalent circuit of a Tx antenna
Zg = antenna impedance
XA = Antenna reactance
Rr = Radiation resistance
Z A = ( Rl + Rr ) + jX A = RA + jX A antenna impedance.
Fig 7.6 (b): Equivalent circuit of receiving antenna
.
he = effective length
From equation (7.7) to (7.9) we have seen that solution for E and H can be obtained
provided solution of A is unknown for a given J. Further while computation of radiated
fields for a Herzian dipole, in equation (7.23a) and (7.23b) we have neglected the higher
1 1
order terms of n and retained only those terms having variation. In fact, once A is
r r
known the radiation field components can be completed for the far field region as:
Er ; 0......................................................(7.37a )
Eq ; - jw Aq ............................................(7.37b)
Ef ; - jw Af .............................................(7.37c)
H r ; 0...............................................................(7.37 d )
jw
Ef
Hq = - =
Af ...........................................(7.37e)
h h
E jw
Hf = q = - Aq ............................................(7.37 f )
h h
The relationship stated above equation (7.37a) - (7.37f) may be verified for a Herzian
dipole using equations (7.22), (7.24a) and (7.24b).
Let us consider linear antennas of finite length and having negligible diameter. For such
antennas, when fed at the center, a reasonably good approximation of the current is given
by,
� ��l �
� l
k � - z '�
�I 0 sin � � 0 �z ' �
� ��2 �
� 2
I ( z ') = �
�I sin � �l �
�
k � + z '� -
l
�z ' �0
�0 � �
� ��2 �
� 2
This distribution assumes that the current vanishes at the two end points i.e., z ' = �l / 2 .
The plots of current distribution are shown in the figure 7.7 for different 'l'.
This distribution assumes that the current vanishes at the two end points i.e. z ' = �l / 2 .
The plots of current distribution are shown in the figure 7.7 for different 's'.
l0 l
I = I 0 cos k0 z ' - �z ' � 0 ………………………….. (7.39)
4 4
Fig 7.8(a): Half wave dipole
Fig 7.8(b): Far field approximation for half wave
dipole
From Fig 7.8(b), for the far field calculation, R @ r - z 'cos q for the phase variation and
R @ r for amplitude term.
� m0 I 0 e - jk0 rr
dA = a 3 cos k0 z ' e jk0 z 'cosq dz ' ............................ (7.42)
4p r
Therefore the vector potential for the half wave dipole can be written as:
l/4
� m0 I 0 e - jk0 r jk0 z 'cos q
A = a3
4p r �cos k z ' e
-l / 4
0 dz '
�p �
2cos � cos q �
� m0 I 0 e - jk0 rr
� 2 �................................ (7.43)
A = a3
4p r k0 sin 2 q
From (7.37b),
= j
I 0h0 e - jk0 r
cos
( p / 2 cos q ) …………………. (7.44)
2p r sin q
Ef = 0 ........................................................................ (7.45)
and Hq = 0 ………………………………………….(7.47)
2
= 36.565 I 0 ……………………………………. (7.48)
Therefore the radiation resistance of the half wave dipole antenna is 36.565 �2 W =
73.13 W
Further, using Eqn(7.27) the directivity function for the dipole antenna can be written as
cos ( p / 2 cos q ) �
2
�
D ( q , f ) = 1.64 � �…………………. (7.49)
� sin q �
Thus directivity of such dipole antenna is 1.04 as compared to 1.5 for an elementary
dipole. The half power beam width in the E-plane can be found to be 780 as compared to
900 for a horizon dipole.
A quarter wave monopole antenna is half of a dipole antenna placed over a grounded
plane. The geometry of such antennas is shown in Fig 7.9(a) and equivalent half wave
dipole is shown in fig 7.9(b).
Fig 7.9 (a): Quarter wave monopole (b) Equivalent Half wave dipole
If the ground plane is perfectly conducting, the monopole antenna shown in Fig 7.9(a)
will be equivalent to a half wave dipole shown in Fig 7.9(b) taking image into account.
The radiation pattern above the grounded plane ( in the upper hemisphere) will be same
as that of a half wave dipole, however, the total radiated power will be half of that of a
dipole since the field will be radiated only in the upper hemisphere.
An ideal quarter wave antenna mounted over a perfectly conducting ground plane has
radiation resistance 36.56, half that of a dipole antenna, radiating in free space. The
directivity of such antennas become double of that of dipole antennas.
Quarter wave monopole antennas are often used as vehicle mounted antennas, the evhicle
providing required ground plane for the antenna. For quarter-wave antennas mounted
above earth, the poor conductivity of the soil results in excessive power loss from the
induced amount in the soil.
The effect of poor ground conductivity is taken care of by installing a ground screen
consisting of radial wires extending outward from the antenna base for a distance of .....
Such arrangement is shown in Fig 7.10.
Fig 7.10: Grounded screen for improving performance of monopole antennas operating
near earth surface.
Loop antennas may take many different forms such as circle, square, rectangle etc. Loop
antennas are generally classified into two categories viz, electrically small and
electrically large antennas. Electrically small antennas are those whose overall length is
less than one tenth is number of terms in the loop times the circumference of the loop.
Here we shall keep our discussion confined to small loop antennas only.
Fig 11: Small Current loop
Small loops are usually not used as transmitting antennas as they have radiation
resistance smaller compared to ..... dipoles. However many unintentional sources of
radiation such as transformers, inductor, printed circuit boards etc essentially behave as
small loop antennas. A small loop of current is also called a magnetic dipole and its
magnetic dipole moment is equal to the product of the area with the current it carries.
Thus for these types of small current loops, the shape of the loop is not important. For a
given current, it is the area of the loop that determines the magnitude of the radiated
fields.
Fig. 11 shows a small current loop of radius peaced on the xy plane with its axis oriented
in the z direction. The loop carries a current I0.
For r0 << l0 , the loop may be treated as a point source. As shown in Fig11, the
elementary current element placed at f ' has a vector orientation
� � �
af ' = - a X sin f '+ a 4 cos f ' . For this current element the vector potential by equation
(7.21)
m0 �� � - jk R
�e 0
dA = I 0 r 0 df ' �- a x sin f '+ a 4 cos f ' � …………………….. (7.50)
4p � �R
Where,
( r sin q cos f - r 0 cos f ) + ( r sin q sin f - r 0 sin f ) + ( r cos q - 0 )
2 2 2
R=
For amplitude variation, we assume R >> r and for phase variation [ By Bionomial expansion after
2
1/ 2 �r �
� �r 0 �
2
r � neglecting � 0 �w.r.to 1]
1 + � �- 2 0 sin q cos ( f - f ' ) � @ r - r 0 sin q cos ( f - f ' )
R=r� �r �
� �r � r �
m0 I 0 r 0 2p � � �
�
\ A= � �- a x sin f '+ a 4 cos f ' �e- jk0 ( r - r0 sin q cos ( f - f ' ) ) df '
4p r f '=0 � �
m0 I 0 r 0 - jk0r 2p � � �
�
@
4p r
e � � ( 1 + jk0 r0 sin q cos ( f - f ') ) df
- a x sin f '+ a 4 cos f ' �
f '= 0 � �
2p
m0 I 0 r0 e - jk0r �
�� �
� �� �
� �
\A= � �
�- a X sin f '+ a 4 sin f ' �+ jk r sin q �- a X sin f ' + a ( cos f 'sin f '+ sin f sin f ' ) �d
4 cos f ' �
4p
0 0
r �
f' � � � � �
m0 I 0 r 0 e - jk0 r cos f �
� sin f � �
= jk0 r0 sin q � a 4 2p - a X 2p �
4p r �2 2 �
m0 I 0 r 0 e - jk0 r �
= jk0 r0 sin qp af
4p r
m0 2 e
- jk0 r
( I 0pr )
�
\ A = jk0 sin q af …………………………. (7.51)
4p r
Using (7.37c) and (7.37e), the radiated field components can be written as
m0 e - jk0 r �
E = w k0 M sin q af .........................................(7.52a)
4p r
w k0 m 0 e - jk0 r �
H =- M sin q aq .........................................(7.52b)
h0 4p r
�
where M = M , M = pr02 I 0 a 3 is the dipole moment of the loop.
The field radiated by a small loop antenna is dual of that small dipole antenna, i.e., a
short current filament, the role of electric and magnetic fields are interchanged.
From (7.52),
2
w 2 k02 �m0 � 2 sin 2 q �
E �H* = �M ar
h0 � �4p � r2
q q f
2 �0 �
Pr = Re �� � � M r sin d d �
0
h0 �4p � r 2
�
2
M 2w 2 k02 �m0 � p 3
= �2p �
sin q dq
2h � �4p � 0
M 2h0 k04
= ................................................(7.53)
12p
�l0 �
If the antenna consists of N number of turns; the radiation resistance increases by a factor
of N2 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
In this section we establish the basic methodology for analyzing an array of identical
elements.
As shown in fig 7.12, let us consider an array of N identical elements. The position vector
ja
of the ith element is given by ri . The excitation of ith element is given Ci e i where Ci and
a i are respectively the relative amplitudes and phases.
Let the electric field radiated by an element, when placed at the origin and with an unity
excitation is given by
e - jk0 r
E ( r ) = f ( q ,f ) ……………………..(7.54)
4p r
�
The distance from the ith element to the far field point of interest is Ri = r - a r .ri for phase
variation and Ri = r for amplitude variation.
� � �
- jk0 �
r - a r .ri �
� �
N
e � �
E ( r ) = �Ci e jai f ( q ,f )
i =1 r ……………………….(7.55)
� � �
- jk0 r N a + k0 a r .ri �
e j�
= f ( q ,f )
�i
�
�
Ci e � �
r i =1
As can be seen from (7.56), the total radiation field is given by the product of the
N �
j �
radiation field of the reference element and the term �Ci e �a i + k0 a r .r �
�.
i =1 � �
� � �
N a + k0 ar .ri �
j�
The term F ( q ,f ) =
�i
�
�
Ci e � �………………………....(7.56) is called the array
i =1
factor of the antenna array.
pattern of an array is the product of the ……… function of the individual element with
the array pattern function. This termed as principle of pattern multiplication.
In equation (7.57) we derived the expression for the array factor for an N- element array.
To simplify our discussion, let us consider a two-element array. Further, we consider the
elements are to be isotropic point sources. The array configuration under consideration is
shown in Fig. 7.13.
k0 d
ja1 j 2 sinq cosf - jk d sinq cosf
\ F ( q ,f ) = C1e e + C2e ja2 e 0 2
We now consider some specific cases.
Case -1:
�d � �d �
jp � sinq cosf
� - jp � sin q cosf
�
\ F ( q ,f ) = e
�l � �l �
� �
+e � �
� d� �
= 2cos �p �
��sin q cos f �
� �l � �
p
Let us plot the array pattern on xy plane i.e., q = . Fig 7.14 (a) – Fig 7.14(d) show the
2
d
nature of variation of the array factor as a function of .
l
d
It can be seen that for = 0.5 , the maximum radiation take place in a direction
l
perpendicular to array axis( broad side direction) and no radiation along the axis of the
d
array (endfix) for > 0.5 the radiation increases along the array axis.
l
Case 2:
Point sources have equal amplitude and opposite phase.
� �d � p� � �d � p�
p� �
j� sin q cos f + � p� �
- j� sin q cos f + �
F ( q ,f ) = e � �l �
+e
2� � �l � 2�
�d p�
p sin q cos f + �
= 2 cos � ..................................(7.57)
�l 2�
p
Once again we plot array pattern on the xy plane, i.e., q = . The same is shown in Fig
2
7.15(a) to Fig 7.15(d).
It can be seen from Fig 7.14(b) and Fig 7.15(b), that for d = l / 2 spacing, broadside
pattern is obtained for elements having same phase while end side pattern is obtained
when the elements are excited in the opposite phase.
d d
(a) = 0.25 (b) = 0.75
l l
d d
(c) = 0.50 (d) = 1.00
l l
d d
(c) = 0.50 (d) = 1.00
l l
So far, we have considered the behavior of arrays having only two elements. Let us now
consider a uniform array having N +1 point sources. Each antenna element is assumed to
have same amplitude Ci = I 0 and a progressive phase shift of a d between two elements
where‘d’ is the separation between the elements. Thus, with reference to the Fig 7.1b, the
ith element has a phase a i = ida .
� � � �
N a id + k0id a x . a r �
j�
\ F ( q , f ) = I 0 �e � �
i =0
N
j ( a id + k0 id cos z )
= I 0 �e ...................................(7.58)
i =0
N
1 - w N +1
�wi =
i =0 1- w
…………………………………….(7.59)
N +1) ( a d + k0 d cos z )
1 - e(
F ( q ,f ) = I 0
1 - e(
a d + k0 d cos z )
��N + 1 � �
N
sin �� �( a d + k0 d cos z ) �…………………….. (7.60)
j ( a d + k0 d cos z )
��2 �
= I 0e 2
�( a d + k0 d cos z ) �
sin � �
� 2
If we define u = k0 d cos z
and u0 = a d , then from (7.63) we can write array field pattern F to be
�( N + 1) �
sin � ( u + u0 ) �
F ( U ) = I0 � 2
………………………..(7.61)
sin { ( u + u0 ) }
The function defined by equation (7.64) is a periodic function whose peak value occurs at
u = -u0 and when ever
( u + u0 ) = mp is an integer. The peak value is ( N + 1) I .
0
2
……………..
As we can see from Fig 7.17, along with the major lobe, in the visible space there are
several smaller maxima. These smaller maxima corresponds to ride lobes.
If a = 0 , i.e., all the elements are in the same phase, then the maximum occurs at u = 0
i.e., cos z = 0 .
p
i.e., z = . Thus the maximum radiation occurs broad side to array axis. If we consider
2
the pattern in the y plane for which q = p / 2 . Then cos z = sin q cos f = 0 => f = p / 2 .
i.e., maximum radiation is along y-axis.
So far we have discussed the nature of the pattern produced by the arrays in which the
excitations (amplitude and phase) of the elements are specified. Alternatively, if we have
an array pattern specified a priori, the same can be approximately realized (synthesis) by
proper choice of element spacing, amplitudes and phases of the individual elements. This
process of realizing a specified pattern is known as array pattern synthesis or simply array
synthesis.