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ADVANCED PROCESS CONTROL

Process Optimisation

The application of optimisation techniques is not restricted to the design of

predictive constrained controllers. Process optimisation is a task in its own right. Unlike
local controllers, which seek to maintain unit operating conditions at desired levels, the
plant optimiser utilises a model of the plant to adjust operating conditions of the process
so as to minimise raw material usage and maximise profits . The outputs of the optimiser
therefore set the targets for the local controllers, taking into consideration the operational
limits of the plant. This effectively bridging the gap between the plant's true business
objectives and its actual operations .

Shows A Generic Configuration Of A Process Optimisation Scheme.

Structure of Optimisation Scheme

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Due to the complexity and the scale of this type of optimisation problem, the
model used is normally a steady-state description to enable a tractable solution. As with
control algorithms, adaptive on-line optimisation is also feasible

Process Monitoring, Fault Detection, Location and Diagnosis

Fault diagnosis has become an area of primary importance in modern process

automation. It provides the pre-requisites for fault tolerance, reliability or security, which
constitute fundamental design features in complex engineering systems. The system
under consideration is monitored and the data is passed to fault detection algorithms or
procedures. The basic task of a fault detection scheme is to register an alarm when an
abnormal condition develops in the monitored system. Once a fault is detected,
procedures may also be subsequently used to identify or diagnose the cause of the
abnormality.

Fault detection and diagnosis techniques are again based upon the use of process
models. In addition to the mathematical models used in controller design, statistical as
well as qualitative models are increasingly being employed .Mathematical models are
normally used to develop state-estimators or state-observers. Data from the monitored
plant is input to these algorithms and the outputs compared with the corresponding plant
outputs. If there are discrepancies, then it is an indication that at least one fault has
occurred. The next task is to determine the locations of these faults. Again a
representative model, not necessarily the one used in fault detection, is employed. In
some instances, the location of the fault may be deduced by the type of fault. Here
genetic algorithms and rule induction systems can be used to classify the fault.
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PID Control

The long-term operation of any system, large or small,requires that there be a

mass/energy balance between input and output. If a process is operated at equilibrium at
all times,control would be simple. Since change does exist, the critical parameter in
process control is TIME, i.e. how long it takes fora change in any input to appear in the
output. System time constants can vary from fractions of a second to many hours.

The PID controller is the most widely used type of process controller. It is the ability to
tune its control action to specific process time constants and therefore to deal with
process changes over time that has earned the PID controller its wide-spread acceptance.
To measure output or deviation form, what is desired is to measure difference (error). The
most common way of measuring and reducing any error is through FEEDBACK, a
technique of measuring the output and feeding it back to the controller. The function of
the process controller is to adjust a process variable input to eliminate that error. The PID
controller is most often the type of controller chosen to do this.

ON/OFF Control
The simplest control action is ON/OFF. This type of control is inexpensive, but
not accurate enough in most process and machine control applications. ON/OFF control
almost always means overshoot and resultant system cycling. A deadband is usually
required around the setpoint to prevent relay chatter at setpoint. ON/OFF control has no
provision for adjusting to the time constants of a particular system.
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Proportional Control
Proportional control offers smoother response to process changes that ON/OFF
control. A proportional controller adjusts its control action in proportion to the need of the
process system. Proportional control can be HEAT (reverse) or COOL (direct) acting in
temperature systems. For other applications either reverse or direct acting control may
be appropriate. Proportional controllers are tuneable. Their response to process changes
can be adjusted to suit the time constants of the specific process system (see figure). In
theory, a proportional controller should be all that is needed for process control. Any
change in system output is corrected for by an appropriate change in controller output.
Unfortunately, the operation of a proportional controller leads to process deviation
known as OFFSET or DROOP.

Time Proportional Control (TPR)

PID control can also be applied in an ON/OFF control system by the addition of a
time base within the controller. For each preset time interval (CYCLE TIME) the
controller will proportion the ON and OFF time depending on the magnitude of effort and
the tuning values selected. This control action, called TIME PROPORTIONAL, provides
better control than pure ON/OFF, while still taking advantage of the simplicity and lower
costs usually associated with ON/OFF control devices.

PID Tuning

Each operator manual contains detailed instructions within the TUNING section
on how to tune a PID controller. It is the responsibility of the user to tune the controller,
but it is useful to be at least familiar with the tuning process. In general, tuning is started
by determining the correct proportional band. In most applications, a proportional band is
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desired that will bring the system to setpoint quickly without cycling or overshoot. Small
changes in PB are not usually effective. It is not unusual when tuning a controller to make
PB changes by a factor of 2 while zeroing in on the optimum PB. Setting the Reset action
requires following the instructions in the manual. Rate action is often misunderstood and
difficult to set. For this reason most PID controllers are normally used at PI only. Our
instructions show how to tune Rate. A general rule of thumb is that Rate should be
numerically one-quarter the value of Reset. Do not use Rate in systems
with fast changing inputs or on noisy input signals such as flow measurements.
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SOLID STATE FERMENTATION

Definition

Solid-state fermentation (SSF) processes can be defined as “the growth of

microorganisms (mainly fungi) on moist solid materials in the absence of free-flowing
water” [1,2].
These processes have been used for the production of food, animal feed, and both
pharmaceutical and agricultural products.Substrates that have been traditionally
fermented by solid-state include a variety of agricultural products such as rice, wheat,
millet barley, grains, beans, corn and soybeans. However, nontraditional substrates which
may also be of interest in industrial process development include an abundant supply of
agricultural, forest and food-processing wastes (such as wheat bran and soy grits (flakes
remaining after extraction of oil)).

1. Comparative studies between submerged liquid fermentation (SLF) and SSF claim
higher yields and other advantages for products made by SSF [1, 3-7]:
2. Similar or higher yields than those obtained in the corresponding submerged cultures.
3. The low availability of water reduces the possibilities of contamination by bacteria and
yeast. This allows working in aseptic conditions in some cases.
4. Similar environment conditions to those of the natural habitats for fungi, which
constitute the main group of microorganisms used in SSF.
5. Higher levels of aeration, especially adequate in those processes demanding an
intensive oxidative metabolism.
6. The inoculation with spores (in those processes that involve fungi) facilitates its
uniform dispersion through the medium.
7. Culture media are often quite simple. The substrate usually provides all the nutrients
necessary for growth.
8. Simple design reactors, with few spatial requirements can be used due to the
concentrated nature of the substrates.
9. Low energetic requirements (in some cases autoclaving or vapour treatment,
mechanical agitation and aeration are not necessary).
10. Small volumes of polluting effluents. Fewer requirements of dissolvents are necessary
for product extraction due to their high concentration.
11. The low moisture availability may favour the production of specific compounds that
may not be produced or may be poorly produced in SLF.
12. In some cases, the products obtained have slightly different properties (e.g. more
thermotolerance) when produced in SSF in comparison to SLF.
13. Due to the concentrated nature of the substrate, smaller reactors in SSF with respect
to SLF can be used to hold the same amounts of substrate.
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In the same way, SSF has some disadvantages when compared with the
submerged-liquid cultures [1, 3-5, 7]:
1. Only microorganisms that can grow at low moisture levels can be used.
2. Usually the substrates require pre-treatment (size reduction by grinding, rasping or
chopping, homogenisation,physical, chemical or enzymatic hydrolysis, cooking or
vapour treatment).
3. Biomass determination is very difficult.
4. The solid nature of the substrate causes problems in the monitoring of the process
parameters (pH, moisture content, and substrate, oxygen and biomass concentration).
5. Agitation may be very difficulty. For this reason static conditions are preferred.
6. Frequent need of high inoculum volumes.
7. Many important basic scientific and engineering aspects are yet poor characterised.
Information about the design and operation of reactors on a large scale is scarce.
8. Possibility of contamination by undesirable fungi.
9. The removal of metabolic heat generated during growth may be very difficult.
10. Extracts containing products obtained by leaching of fermented solids are often
viscous of nature.
11. Mass transfer limited to diffusion.

Selection of the Microorganisms

The ability of the microorganisms for growing on a solid substrate is a function of
their requirements of water activity,their capacity of adherence and penetration into the
substrate and their ability to assimilate mixtures of different polysaccharides due to the
nature, often complex, of the substrates used.The filamentous fungi are the best-adapted
microorganisms for SSF owing to their physiological, enzymological and biochemical
properties. The hyphal mode of fungal growth gives the filamentous fungi the power to
penetrate into the solid substrates. This also gives them a major advantage over
unicellular microorganisms for the colonisation of the substrate and the utilisation of the
available nutrients. In addition, their ability to grow at low water activity (aw) and high
osmotic pressure conditions (high nutrient concentration) makes fungi efficient and
competitive in natural microflora for bioconversion of solid substrates

Support and Nutrient Source

In SSF, two types of process can be distinguished depending on the nature of the
solid phase. In the first and the most used, the solid serves both as a support and a
nutrient source. These substrates are heterogeneous water insoluble materials from
agriculture or by-products from food industry, which have an amylaceous or ligno-
cellulosic nature (grains and grain byproducts, cassava, potato, beans and sugar beet
pulp). For this last characteristic, these should be pre-treated to convert the raw substrate
into a suitable form to increase its utilisation by the microorganism.
This includes
• size reduction by sifting, grinding, rasping or chopping.
• damage to outer substrate layers by grinding, pearling or cracking.
• chemical or enzymatic hydrolysis of polymers.
• supplementation with nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen,salts) and setting the pH and
moisture content, using amineral solution.
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• cooking or vapour treatment for macromolecular structure pre-degradation and

elimination of major contaminants. In the second, an inert support (sugar cane bagasse,
hemp, inert fibres, resins, polyurethane foam and vermiculite) is impregnated with a
liquid medium, which contains all the nutrients (sugars, lipids, organic acids, etc). This
strategy is less used, but it reports some advantages. The use of a defined liquid
medium and an inert support with a homogenous physical structure improves controlling
and monitoring the process and the reproducibility of fermentations. In any case, the use
of inert supports presents economical disadvantages
In both cases, the success of the process is directly related to the physical
characteristics of the support, which favour both gases and nutrients diffusion and the
anchorage of the microorganisms [8]. From a practical point of view, the following
physical characteristics of the solid matrix must be taken into account because of their
influence on the development of SSF particle size and shape, porosity and consistency of
the material.
Environmental Factors Affecting Microbial Growth And Product Synthesis In Ssf
Environmental factors such as water activity, moisture content,temperature, pH,
oxygen levels and concentrations of nutrients and products significantly affect microbial
growth and product formation.

Water Activity and Moisture Content of the Substrate

The Moisture content is a critical factor on SSF processes because this variable
has influence on growth and biosynthesis and secretion of different metabolites .A lower
moisture content causes reduction in solubility of nutrients of the substrate, low degree of
swelling and high water tension. On the other hand, higher moisture levels can cause a
reduction in enzyme yield due to steric hindrance of the growth of the producer strain by
reduction in porosity (interparticle spaces) of the solid matrix, thus interfering oxygen
transfer . As the optimal value of moisture content depends on both the microorganism
and the solid matrix used, for economical production, the microorganism should be
grown in optimal moisture levels either for maximising the growth or metabolite
production (enzymes, organic acids, etc) depending on the application. Generally, the
water content of the substrate oscillates between 30 and 75%. Lower values can induce
the sporulation of the microorganism, whereas higher levels can reduce the porosity of
the system, which can produce oxygen transfer limitation, and increase the risk of
bacterial contamination.
During fermentation,the water level of the substrate can change due to
evaporation and microbial activity. In general, the result of all these processes is the loss
of humidity, being necessary to add water using humidificators or applying a water
saturated air flow.The water requirements of microorganism must be better defined in
terms of water activity (aw) rather than water content of the solid substrate . Water
activity is defined as the relationship between the vapour pressure of water in a system
and the vapour pressure of the pure water. From a microbiological point of view aw
indicates the available or accessible water for the growth of the microorganism. The
water activity affects the biomass development, metabolic reactions, and the mass
transfer processes . Although water activity is a function of the concentration of the
solutes, in those systems in which solutions are adsorbed in amatrix, the values of aw also
depend on the physical structure and the chemistry nature of the matrix. The adequate
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value of aw depends on both the product and the requirements of the microorganism
Generally, aw for metabolite production is higher than for growth.
Mass Transfer Processes: Aeration and Nutrients Diffusion
In SSF, the mass transfer processes related to gases and nutrients diffusion are
strongly influenced by the physical structure of the matrix and by the liquid phase of the
system .
1. Gases diffusion: The aeration has essentially two functions: (1) oxygen supply for
aerobic metabolism and (2) removal of CO2, heat, water vapour and volatile components
produced during the metabolism . The exchange of O2 and CO2 between the solid and
the gas phase takes place at both inter-particular and intra-particular level. This depends
on those factors that increase the contact surface between the phases [1]: void fraction of
the matrix, pore and diameter size of the particle, degree of mixture and depth of the
matrix, additional aeration generated by forced step of sterile air and agitation and
moisture level of the substrate. In general, the gases diffusion increases with the pore size
and decreases with the reduction of the diameter due to substrate packaging .
2. Nutrients diffusion: It occurs at an intraparticular level and includes both the diffusion
of nutrients toward the cells and the hydrolysis of solid substrates by the microbial
enzymes . This last point is an important aspect in SSF because the most part of the
substrate is water insoluble In substrates with a small pore size, the resistance to the
intraparticular mass transference increases with the diameter of the particle and the
degradation of the substrate occurs mainly at the outer surface. Nutrient diffusion
processes are especially important in bacterial and yeast SSF. They are not so critical for
fungi cultures because the mycelium can better penetrate the solid matrix.
Temperature
The increase in temperature in SSF is a consequence of the metabolic activity when the
heat removal is not enough. This affects directly spores germination, growth and product
formation. The temperature level reached is a function of the type of microorganism, the
porosity, the particle diameter and the depth of the substrate.Heat transfer in SSF is very
low because of the limited heat transfer capacity of the solid substrates used. The overall
heat transfer depends on the rates of the intra- and inter-particle heat transfer and the rate
at which heat is transferred from the particle surface to the gas phaseControl of
temperature is more difficult in SSF than in submerged fermentation. Thus, the control
methods used in SLF are not suitable for SSF. In an industrial context, monitoring
and controlling this variable is critical for scaling up.Conventionally aeration is the main
method used to control the temperature of the substrate. Because high aeration rates can
reduce the water activity of the substrate by evaporation, water saturated air is usually
used . The agitation of the fermentation mass can also help to control the temperature.
pH
The measurement and control of this variable in SSF is very difficult. Nevertheless, the
substrates employed in SSF usually has buffering effect due to their complex chemical
composition. In these cases, the control of pH is not necessary. When this variable must
be controlled, buffering solutions are added as liquid phase, but this strategy can be
inadequate when the process is scaled-up. Another possibility to control the evolution
of the pH consists on adding a mixture of sources of nitrogen with opposite influence on
the evolution of the pH in such a way than ones counteract the effect of the others. In this
sense, ammonium salts have been used in SSF in combination with urea or nitrate salts
due to the respective effects of acidification and alkalization
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PRODUCTION OF ORGANIC ACIDS UNDER SSF

Fermentation plays a key role in the production of organic acids. The production
of organic acids progressed with development of SSF. However,biotechnological
processes for large-scale production of organic acids are still in early phases of
development.Organic acids are the most common ingredients of food and beverages
because of their three main properties: solubility, hygroscopic quality,and their ability to
chelate.130 Some of the acids produced using SSF are citric acid, lactic acid, gallic
acid, fumaric acid, _-linoleic acid, and kojic acid.

Citric acid
Various agro-industrial residues such as sugarcane press mud, coffee husk, wheat
bran, cassava fibrous residue, de-oiled rice bran, carob pods, apple pomace, grape
pomace, kiwi fruit peels, okara,pineapple wastes, mausami wastes, kumara etc. are
most potential substrates for production of citric acid in SSF.
Solid-state fermentation has been proved advantageous over SMF in many
respects. Metal ions such as Fe+2, Mn+2 and Zn+2 repress biosynthesis of citric acid by
Aspergillus niger in submerged fermentation, but this does not happen in SSF. It is
reported by Kumar et al. that addition of these metal ions enhances production of citric
acid by 1.4 – 1.9 times in SSF.3 Kumar et al. compared wheat bran and sugarcane
bagasse for maximum citric acid production with Aspergillus niger DS-1 strain.
Sugarcane bagasse proved to be a better carrier when compared with wheat bran.
Agglomeration in wheat bran caused non-uniform mixing of the substrate, affected heat
and mass transfer along with growth and product formation. Bagasse did not show
agglomeration even when moisture level was increased from 65 % to 85 %.3
Supplementation of methanol to agro-industrial residues enhanced citric acid production.
utilized pineapple,mixed fruit and mausami residues for producing citric acid using
Aspergillus niger DS-1 in SSF.Supplementation of methanol to substrates was done at
different moisture levels. Methanol being a dehydrating agent enhanced the moisture
requirement of substrates. In the presence of methanol sugar consumption decreased but
citric acid production increased.
The maximum citric acid yield was Y = 51.4, 46.5 and 50 % (based on sugar
consumed) from pineapple, mixed fruit and mausami residues, Addition of methanol
to the substrate increased citric acid production.132,133 Figs were used for production of
citric acid due to their high carbohydrate content and yielded 8 % citric acid. However,
the addition of methanol increased citric acid production from 64 – 490 g kg–1 dry
Enhancement in citric acid also depends on other additives such as carbon
and nitrogen sources and metal ions.Researchers have used different bioreactors for
production of citric acid. Flasks proved their superiority over tray and rotating drum
bioreactors when compared among different bioreactors using pineapple waste as
substrate for citric acid production, with strains of Aspergillus.135 Packed bed reactors
proved their superiority when compared to flask cultures in production of citric acid.
starch-containing substrate was used for citric acid production using Aspergillus niger
with a packed bed bioreactor. Some adverse effects of packed bed such as reactor
blockage due to fungal biomass, forced aeration and limited space,
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Aspergillus niger, cassava bagasse proved to be better since it increased the

protein content of fermented matter. The presence of calcium, phosphorus, vitamin B2,
thiamine and niacin in cassava may have enhanced the yield of citric acid.Aspergillus
niger has been found to be the most suitable strain for citric acid production. Most
strains are unable to produce citric acid in acceptable yields since it is a metabolite of
energy metabolism. Its accumulation rises in appreciable amounts in drastic conditions.
The main advantages of using Aspergillus niger are its easy handling and its ability to
ferment a wide variety of cheap raw materials. Enhancement in citric acid depends on
the selection of proper nutrient supplements, organism and substrates to prevent drastic
changes in pH.140 However, significant optimization may make production cheaper in
SSF.

Lactic acid
Some of the substrates used for production of lactic acid are wheat bran, wheat
straw corncob,cassava, sweet sorghum, sugarcane bagasse, sugarcane press mud and
carrot processing wastes. Aeration of moistened medium is an important factor for
the SSF. It provides humidity to solid support and oxygen for growth.
Lactic acid production in SSF utilized corncobs for L-lactic acid production using
Acremonium thermophilus and Rhizopus in an airlift bioreactor.Inert support when used
should provide good conditions for fermentation along with the purity of the product.
Sugarcane bagasse impregnated with the sugar solution from gelatinized cassava bagasse
was used as an inert support for production of lactic acid using Lactobacillus delbruecki.
Wheat bran not only makes the process economical but also brings the organism
closer to its natural habitat. Lactobacillus amylophilus has been found to be efficient in
direct fermentation of starch to lactic acid, avoiding the multi-step processes of
simultaneous saccharification and fermentation. Optimization of nutrients by response
surface methodology resulted in production of 36 g of lactic acid per 100 g of wheat bran
having 54 g of starch, with the Lactobacillus amylophilus strain. The increase in lactic
acid production was 100 % (from 0.18 to 0.36). The conversion from rough surface with
extensive complex mesh to smooth surface particles after inoculation confirmed
alteration of raw starch to glucose, which then converted to lactic acid.145
Some parameters to be considered for lactic acid production are aeration rate, substrate
selection and nutritional supplementation. However, lactic acid production from cheaper
substrates is still a challenge in SSF, which has to be overcome by development of low
cost mediums.

Gallic acid
Gallic acid is a phenolic compound. Tannase enzyme is used for converting
tannin to gallic acid using Rhizopus oryzae on tannin-rich substrate in a Growtek
bioreactor In the Growtek bioreactor,the solid substrate comes into direct contact with
the liquid medium, and thus heat removal is easy. This reactor was used for producing
gallic acid with mixed cultures of filamentous fungi such as Rhizopus oryzae and
Aspergillus foetidus. Co-culturing of two organisms has advantage of providing
internal regulation and product formation
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