2.

Basic assumptions for

stellar atmospheres

1. geometry, stationarity
2. conservation of momentum, mass
3. conservation of energy
4. Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium

1
 1. Geometry

Stars as gaseous spheres  spherical symmetry

Exceptions: rapidly rotating stars
Be stars vrot = 300 – 400 km/s
(Sun vrot = 2 km/s)

For stellar photospheres typically: r/R << 1

Sun: Ro = 700,000 km
photosphere r = 300 km r/R = 4 x 10-4
cromosphere r = 3000 km r/R = 4 x 10-3
corona r/R ~ 3
2
 As long as r/R << 1 : plane-parallel symmetry
consider a light ray through the atmosphere:

r/R << 1 r/R ~ 1

path of light

lines of constant temperature and density

Plane-parallel symmetry Spherical symmetry

very small curvature () significant curvature (≠ )
3
Solar photo/cromosphere, dwarfs, Solar corona, supergiants, expanding
(giants) envelopes (OBA stars), novae, SN
Homogeneity & stationarity

We assume the atmosphere to be homogeneous

Counter-examples:
sunspots, granulation, non-radial pulsations
clumps and shocks in hot star winds
magnetic Ap stars

and stationary
Most spectra are time-independent: t = 0 (if we don’t look carefully enough…)

Exceptions: explosive phenomena (SN), stellar pulsations, magnetic stars, mass

transfer in close binaries
4
 2. Conservation of momentum & mass
consider a mass element dm in a spherically symmetric atmosphere

The acceleration of the mass element results from the sum of all
forces acting on dm, according to Newton’s 2nd law:

d
dm v(r,t)   df i  F
5
dt i
 d
dm v(r,t)   dfi  F
dt i

a. Hydrostatic equilibrium

Assuming a hydrostatic stratification: v(r,t)=0

0   i df i

M r  dm
Gravitational forces: df grav  G   g(r ) dm
r 2

dP
Gas Pressure forces: df p , gas   A P (r  dr )  A P (r )   A dr
dr

Radiation forces: dfrad  grad (r ) dm  absorbed photon momentum

dt
6
 In equilibrium:

dP
0   i df i   g(r )dm  A dr  grad dm
dr

and substituting dm = A  dr:

dP
 g(r )  Adr  A dr  grad  Adr  0
dr

dP Hydrostatic equilibrium in
   (r )[ g(r )  grad ] spherical symmetry
dr

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 Approximation for g(r)
The mass within the atmosphere M(r) – M(R) << M(R)=M*

M(R) = M(r) = M*

g(r) = G M*/r2

Example: take a geometrically thin photosphere

4 4 3 r 3
M phot   [( R  r )3  R3 ]   [ R (1  )  R3 ]
3 3 R
4 3 r
 R [1  3  1]   4 R 2 r
3 R
8
 Example: the sun
R = 7 x 1010 cm, r = 3 x 107 cm, ρ ~ mH N = 1.7 x 10-24 x 1015 g/cm3:

Mphot = 3 x 1021 g Mphot/M = 10-12

Moreover in plane-parallel symmetry:

r/R << 1
g(r) = const
g = G M*/R2

Main sequence star log g = 4 (cgs: cm/s2)

supergiant 3.5 – 0.8
white dwarf 8
Sun 4.44
Earth 3.0
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 Barometric formula

Assume:
• plane-parallel symmetry Note:
• grad << g
 kT  RT
• ideal gas: P   N g kT
mH  

• and: 1 d 1 dT k: Boltzmann constant = 1.38 x 10-16 erg K-1


 dr T dr mH: mass of H atom = 1.66 x 10-24 g
: mean molecular weight per free particle = <m> / mH
R = k NA = 8.314 x 107 erg/mole/K

dP
   (r ) g(r )
10
dr
 dP
   (r ) g(r )
dr
Barometric formula
k d dT
[T  ]   g
mH  dr dr

kT 1 d  1 dT
[  ]  g
mH   dr T dr negligible by assumption

1 d gmH  kT pressure scale height

 and: H 
 dr kT gmH μ H(Sun) = 150 km

r r0
solution: 
 (r )   (r0 ) e H
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 dP
   (r ) g(r )
dr

r r0 Approximate solution:


 (r )   (r0 ) e H Barometric formula

• exponential decline of density

• scale length H ~ T/g
• explains why atmospheres are so thin

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 b. radial flow
Let us now consider the case in which there are deviations from
hydrostatic equilibrium and v(r,t) ≠ 0.
Newton’s law: d
dm v(r,t)   df i
dt i
v v
d v(r  r , t  t )  v(r , t ) Taylor expansion v(r  r , t  t )  v(r , t )  r  t
v(r,t)  lim r t
dt t 0 t and
r  v t

v v
v t  t
d v v
v(r,t)  lim r t  v
dt t 0 t t r In general:

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For the assumption of stationarity /t = 0

d v
v(r,t)  v
dt r

d v
dm v(r,t)  dm v   df i
dt r i

dP
dm  A  dr  g(r )dm  A dr  grad dm
dr

dP dv
   [ g(r )  grad  v ]
dr dr
14 new term
 equation of continuity, mass conservation

.
. d M
M M  4 r 2  v v
dt 4 r 2 
. .
dv 2M M d 2v v d 
    
dr 4 r  4 r  dr
3 2 2
r  dr

dP dv
From:    [ g(r )  grad  v ]
dr dr dv v2 2 d
and from the equation of state: v  2  v
dr r dr
dP kT d d
  vsound
2

dr mH  dr dr

Assuming again that the

temperature gradient is small
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 d v2 Hydrodynamic
(v 2
sound v )
2
   [ g(r )  grad  2 ] equation of motion
dr r

mves2 c (r ) mM
escape velocity : = G  mrg  vesc (r )  2 gr
2
with
2 r

d  g v 2
re-write
(vsound
2
 v2 )    g(r )[1  rad  4 2 ]
dr g(r ) vesc (r )
When v << vsound: practically hydrostatic solution (v = 0) for density
stratification. This is reached well below the sonic point (where v = vsound).

example: vsound = 6 km/s for solar photosphere , 20 km/s for O stars

vesc = 100 to 1000 km/s for main sequence and supergiant stars
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 (vsound/vesc)2 << 1
 3. Conservation of energy
Stellar interior: production of energy via nuclear reactions
Stellar atmosphere: negligible production of energy

the energy flux is conserved at any given radius

F (r )  energy In spherical symmetry: r2 F(r) = const

area  time F(r) ~ 1/r2

4 r 2 F (r )  const  luminosity L Plane-parallel: r2 ~ R2 ~ const

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F(r) ~ const
 4. Concepts of Thermodynamics

Radiation field
Consider a closed“cavity” in thermodynamic equilibrium TE
(photons and particles in equilibrium at some temperature T). 
The specific intensity emitted (through a small hole) is
(energy per area, per unit time, per unit frequency, per unit solid angle)
(Planck function):

2h 3 1
I d  B (T ) d  2 h / kT d (erg cm 2 s 1 Hz 1sr -1 )
c e 1
black body radiation: universal function dependent only on T
not on chemical composition, direction, place, etc.

Note: stars don’t radiate as blackbodies, since they are not closed systems !!!
But their
18 radiation follows the Planck function qualitatively
 properties of Planck function

a. B(T1) > B(T2) (monotonic) for every T1 > T2 (no function crossing)
2 .8 9 8 ·1 0
7

b max/T = const Wien’s displacement law λm ax = T

Å f o r B λ

c. Stefan-Boltzmann law:  5 .0 9 9 ·1 0
7

F    B (T ) d   T 4
λm ax = Å f o r B ν
(total flux) T

 5.67105 ergcm 2 s 1 K 4

h/kT >> 1: Wien 2h 3 - h / kT

B (T )  2 e
c

h/kT << 1: Rayleigh-Jeans

2h 2
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B (T )  2 kT
Rybicki & Lightman, 79 c
 Concepts of Thermodynamics

Gas particles
1. Velocity distribution

In complete equilibrium this is given by Maxwell distribution

(needed, e.g., for collisional rates):

3/ 2 mv2
 m  
f (v)dv  4 v  2
 e 2 kT
dv
 2 kT 

most probable speed: vp   2kT m 

1/ 2

average speed:  v   8kT  m 

1/ 2

r.m.s. speed: vrms   3kT m 

1/ 2
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2. Energy level distribution

Boltzmann’s equation for the population density of

excited states in TE
( E u  El )
nu gu 
 e kT

upper level: u
nl gl
gu, gl: statistical weights = 2J+1: number of degenerate states)
= 2n2 for Hydrogen

E
nn gn  kTn
 e
ntot u
lower level: l Ei

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u   gi e kT
partition function
i
3. Kirchhoff’s law

 emission coefficient
For a thermal emitter in TE   B (T )
 absorption coefficient

as a consequence of Boltzmann’s equation for

excitation and Maxwell’s velocity law.

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 Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium

A star as a whole (or a stellar atmosphere) is far from being in

thermodynamic equilibrium: energy is transported from the center to
the surface, driven by a temperature gradient.
But for sufficiently small volume elements dV, we can assume TE to
hold at a certain temperature T(r)

good approx: stellar interior (high density,

Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium (LTE)
small distance travelled by photons, nearly-
isotropic, thermalized radiation field)
bad approx: gaseous nebulae (low density,
non-local radiation field, optically thin)
stellar atmospheres: optically thick but
moderate density

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 Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium

1. Energy distribution of the gas

determined by local temperature T(r)
appearing in Maxwell’s/ Boltzmann’s equations, and Kirchhoff’s law
2. Energy distribution of the photons
photons are carriers of non-local energy through the atmosphere
 I(r) ≠ B[T(r)]
Iν is a superposition of Planck functions originating at different
depths in the atmosphere  radiation transfer

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Spring 2013
LTE vs NLTE

LTE
each volume element separately in thermodynamic equilibrium at temperature T(r)

1. f(v) dv = Maxwellian with T = T(r)

2. Saha: (np ne)/n1 ~ T3/2 exp(-h1/kT)
3. Boltzmann: ni / n1 = gi / g1 exp(-h1i/kT)

However:
volume elements not closed
systems, interactions by photons
 LTE non-valid if absorption of
photons disrupts equilibrium

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Spring 2013
LTE vs NLTE

NLTE if
rate of photon absorptions >> rate of electron collisions
I (T) ~ T,  > 1 » ne T1/2

LTE
valid: low temperatures & high densities
non-valid: high temperatures & low densities

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Spring 2013
LTE vs NLTE in hot stars

Kudritzki 1978

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