892

IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 5, No.2, April 1990

A HIGH-ACCURACY OPTlGAl CURRENT TRANSDUCER

FOR ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS

Edward A Ulmer, Jr., Member

Square D Electromagnetic Industries
-

CIeaJwater, Florida

ABSTRACT

This paper reports for the first time on an optical current
transducer employing a new, simple, technique to measure
electric current. The technique is based on a fundamental
analysis of the Faraday effect. An optical current transducer
(OCT) has been designed which overcomes the disturbing
effects of temperature on the glass sensing element. By
aligning the transmission axis of the polarizer at a specific
angles, the OCT's output is shown to be Independent of
temperature. High accuracy measurements are thereby
possible over a wide range of temperatures. Two practical OCT
designs for extra-high voltage power systems are compared.
Key Words: electric current measurements, optical sensor,
Faraday effect, birefringence
1.0 INTRODUCTION
During the last two decades many groups conducted research
on how to use optical techniques to measure electric current.
[HI]
The Faraday effect in diamagnetic glasses is independent of
temperature. This independence is a real advantage for
sensors whose intemal temperatures can range from -50' C to
+110·C. However, even small temperature changes produce
stress in the glass sensing elements. The index of refraction Is
no longer isotropic. The non-uniform index of refraction is
termed birefringence.
Stress-induced birefringence caused by temperature changes
distorts the plane polarized light, converting it to elliptical
polarization, and producing an unwanted change in the intensity
of the optical signal. The principal problem plaguing
researchers in the last decade has been how to overcome the
effects of birefringence caused by temperature changes. [1-
8,11,12,13] This paper describes a new, simple, unique
solution to this key problem; a solution that permits a practical
optical current transducer to be constructed that provides high
accuracy measurements over a very wide range of
temperatures.

The primary objective of a large majority of these groups was

to develop an optical current transducer (OCT) for electric
utilities. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate typical sensor configurations.
Optical techniques, particularly fiber optics, offered certain basic
advantages to the utilities: (1) simpler, more reliable high­
voltage insulators on their current sensors; (2) total electrical
isolation between the sensing structure and the substation
control room; (3) electric output signals more compatible with SENSOR ./

the computer based equipment controlling today's and ASSEMBLY

tomorrow's power systems; and (4) accurate current
measurement over a very wide dynamic range of currents.

The research work, however, proved difficult.

Nearly all the optical schemes to measure current use the

Faraday effect: the rotation of the plane of polarization of
polarized light propagating in a magnetic field. Light passes
through glass sensing elements close to the poweriine.
Faraday rotation is produced by the magnetic field created by
the 60Hz current in the powerline. Using two polarizers set at OPTICAL
45' to each other, the 60Hz Faraday rotation is converted to a INTERFACE UNIT
60Hz intensity modulation of the light.

Fig. 1 The principal elements of an optical current

transducer are: the sensor assembly, the dielectric
,')<) Tn ]R2-1 PWRD A paper r,-'commended and Plpproved fiber-optic cable, and the optical interface unit (the
by the If�EE Power System. Instrumentation &. �f(,ilsllre­ electronic controls).
!nt_'nts Committee of tilL' IEEP. Power F.ngineerillg �ociety
for p["e�entat1on iit the IERE/PES ICHN TrdnsmissLon ann
Distribution Conferenc�t April 2 - 7, 198q. 1'-1anllscript 2.0 GENERAL DESCRIPTION
submitted October 14, Ig8B; lTk1.de availahle for printing
February 14, t9Rq. Fig. 2 shows the basic components of an OCT. These sensors
require: (1) a light source that is usually an infrared LED
compatible with optical fibers, (2) all dielectric optical fibers to
transmit the light to an from the sensor head. (3) an all-optical

0885-8977/90/0100-0892$01.00 © 1990 IEEE

 893

sensor head with no moving parts, and no electronics, (4) a
solid high-voltage insulator with no oil or SF6 gas, and (5)
photo-detection and signal processing electronics that detect
the retum signal.
An 820nm LED provides a constant intensity light source. With
no current in the power line, a portion of the light passes
through the entire system and produces a steady dc level in
the detection electronics. A 60Hz current then produces a
60Hz ac modulation of this dc level.

The Faraday effect in diamagnetic glasses, as we noted earlier,

a) CONCENTRATOR
is independent of temperature. However, the Faraday effect
depends rather strongly on the wavelength of the light used in
�) POWER LINE the system [9]. To fix the wavelength of the LED we use a
POLARIZER � ANALYZER temperature control system as indicated in Fig. 2.
OI'J ��o
FARADAY,..? Optical fibers transmit the light to and from the sensor head.
GLASS The fibers are glass and afford complete electrical isolation
between the sensor head and the electronic controls. Large­
core step-index fibers with high numerical apertures are best
because they are easier to work with and capture a significant
amount of light. One special requirement of the fibers is that
they are impervious to water migration between the cladding
and the protective buffer material. It is, of course, imperative
that moisture not penetrate the high-voltage insulator.
Because the only things inside the high voltage insulator are
two optical fibers, the insulator can be very thin. Furthermore
the voltage stress on the insulator will be much more uniform
compared to the field stress in a conventional CT.

The optical elements in the sensor head are discussed in more

detail in the following sections.

Once the light retums to the optical interface unit the

electronics perform three functions: (1) photo-detection and
amplification using a silicon photo-detector and a
transimpedance amplifier; (2) signal processing (discussed
later), and (3) output amplifiers which create appropriate output
signals. One of the most important features of these sensors
is the ability to provide many different types of electronic
outputs from a single sensor head. The familiar concept of
burden disappears. Adding electronic cards that provide more
RING OF
output signals does not degrade the other output signals.
!�(-GLASS
r-- -li!-,"'�
b) \�, U
�
\.W-
A --z...- ANALYZER
POLARIZER u� 3.0 THEORY

HIGH ; , It is usetul to develop the theory of our new OCT by first

VOLTAGE--- : : reviewing in section 3.1 below the basic theory of the Faraday
'
INSULATOR effect and how it has been applied to optical current
transducers. Next, in 3.2, we expand on this simple theory to
include explicity the effects of birefringence. Previous methods
for overcoming the unwanted effects of birefringence are
presented in 3.3. Finally, in section 3.4 we explain our new,
simplified method.

3.1 General

Eq. (1) describes in simple form the rotation of polarized light by

the Faraday effect:

9=/lV HL (1)

Fig. 2 Different optical designs can be employed in
optical current sensors: (a) a design using a
magnetic-field concentrator with a single piece of
glass, and (b) a ring-design where the light encircles
the power line.
where 91s the angular rotation of the plane of polarization, /l the
permeability of the material, V the Verdet constant, H the
magnetic field intensity, and L the path length in the glass over
which the field interacts with the light. (A glossary of symbols
is provided in section 7.0.) The Verdet constant for a given
894

material describes the magnitude of the Faraday effect as the

rotation per unit field per unit length. The exact relationship m=sin2e (SA)
between the magnetic field and the electric current, I, will
depend on the geometry, and we can write

The signal processing electronics than combine. Eq. (2) and

(SA) to produce an ac output signal directly proportional to the
9 = /I. V (KI) L (2) primary current in the power line. For a concentrator-based
OCT:

where K is a geometry-dependent constant.

sin -1 (m)
A description such as Eq. (2) applies to the OCT design 1= (58)
illustrated in Fig. 2a where the magnetic field concentrator
provides a relatively uniform magnetic field throughout the
Faraday sensing element.

For OCT designs illustrated in Fig 2b, where the light makes a and for a ring-design OCT:
complete tum around the conductor:

9 =
/I. V f H· dL (3) sin -1 (m)
1 = (5C)
2JL V N
which through Ampere's circuital law reduces to:

e = /1. V I N (4) Remember, m is the measured quantity, and the other tenns are
constants. Analog processing circuits create an output directly
proportional to the power line current and in phase with that
where N is the number of turns around the conductor. current.

Unfortunately the two simple equations (5) and (SA) do not, in

general, describe the real world.

3.2 Birefringent Faraday Material

The equations above are inadequate because they do not

account for the distorting effects of birefringence on the light.
The seminal paper treating the Faraday effect in a birefringent
media was written by Tabor and Chen [10]. Using the notation
of Day, et. al. [6] we previously developed this theory of a
birefringent Faraday material and applied it to optical current
transducers [11].

A 2 X 2 matrix element is used in Eq. 6 to describe light

propagating in a birefringent Faraday material [11].

Fig. 3 The three key optical elements in the sensor

head of an optical current transducer.
(EXyO) =
fCOS(;L/2) - i(lW)sin(;L/2) -2(F/;)Sin(91/2) l (Eylxi)
EO L2(F/;)Sin(9lL/2) cos(9lL/2) + j(.8/9l)Sin(91L/2L1 E
(6)
Fig. 3 illustrates a typical Faraday sensor with the transmission
axes of the polarizer and analyzer at 45'. This leads to a
modulation of the intensity of the light propagating through the where is the light electric field amplitude of t� e lightwave, L
Eo
system. The intensity rD at the photo-detector is: is the path length in the Faraday material, F IS the Faraday
rotation per unit length, B is the birefringence per unit length, ;
is a combination of Band F given by:

rD (rd2) (1 + sin 29)

= (5) ;' = B' + (F/2), (6A)

with
Signal processing electronics divides the ac component of Eq.
(5), ro (SIN 29)/2 by the dc component ro/2 to eliminate the
dependence on light intenSity. The resulting optical signal is:
(68)

II is the angle the polarizer's transmission axis makes with the
characteristic direction in the Faraday material, and .,p is the
angle the analyzer makes with that same characteristic
direction. (See Fig. 4.)
A key part of this earlier work was to introduce as variables
these angles that the polarizer and analyzer transmission axes
make with a characteristic direction.
The resulting expression for the electric field amplitude of the
light transmitted through the system is:
(2F/cfl)sin (cflL)2)s in(.,p-a)] -
j[JJ/cfl)sin(cflL/2)cos(.,p+II)]
Multiplying (6C) by its conjugate, we derived [12] the general
expression light intensity, r0' transmitted through the optical
system illustrated in Fig. 4:
ro(II,.,p) = ro{cos·(cflL)2)cos·(.,p.a) +
(4F' /cfl') sin' (cflL/2)sin' (.,p-a) +
Note the complexity of Eq. (60). The parameter cfl is a function
of both the birefringence, p, and the Faraday effect, F.
Furthennore, cfl is both an argument of and coefficient of the
sinusoidal functions. Yet this measured light intensity must be
used to accurately determine F, even though p may be
changing.
3.3 Methods for Eliminating the Effects of Birefringence
Numerous researchers [Hl, 10-13] have recognized the
difficulties posed by birefringence. Jaecklin [12] suggested
creating a specific elliptical polarization state for the light
entering the Faraday material. It is not certain that this
technique accounted for variations in birefringence; for example,
variation produced by temperature changes. He also proposed
cutting the Faraday material, rotating one piece 90" and
cementing it back together. This seems impractical.
Furthennore. the act of cutting the material can itself introduce
significant new stress birefringence.
Rashleigh and Ulrich [3] were the first to propose twisting the
optical fiber for those OCTs constructed with loops of single­
made optical fiber. The twist-induced circular birefringence
swamps out the linear stress birefringence. However. the
elasto-optic co-efficient associated with the twist is temperature
dependent.
Still other inventors have tried mechanical feedback systems to
compensate for the birefringence [13].
In our earlier work [11] using the fundamental equations
895
reproduced above, we were able to create an OCT that had no
moving parts, and one that functioned well, even with changes
in the birefringence, and therefore operated over a wide range
of temperature. We demonstrated that by setting the polarizer
transmission axis at a=22.5" and using a beamsplitting analyzer
to.give two output signals at �=a:l:45", we COUld, with some
calculating. determine the birefringence. Once the birefringence
was known a correction factor was developed after more
calculating. This correction factor was applied to one of the
output signals to produce a Faraday rOlation signal free of the
disturbing effects of birefringence.
While this method functional quite well. it required extensive
calculations on a microcomputer plus a total of three optical
fibers between the sensor head and the electronic controls, a
beamsplitting analyzer and two photo-detector. pre­
amplifier/slgnal·processlng stages In the electronics.
(6C)
3.4 Improved Method
Our new method begins appropriately with the fundamental
equation. Eq. (60), describing Faraday rotation in a birefringent
media.
CHARACTERISTIC
DIRECTION
(60)
\/'
,C.D. P
" 01
A
Fig. 4 The correct treatment of Faraday rotation in a
birefringent materials requires a treatment based on
a characteristic direction in the material. (The
characteristic direction is equivalent to a principal
axis in crystals.) The axes of the polarizer and
analyzer are defined with respect to this characteristic
direction.
As with most Faraday sensors, we orient the polarizer and
analyzer at 45" to each other so (l/J-a) 45" .
=
As before we divide the ac component of the signal by the dc
component to remove any dependence on the light source
Intensity. We denote this as:
ro (ac)
m= (6C)
ro (de)
Remember, changes in temperature produce changes in the
birefringence and the sensor's output signal varies. We can
Illustrate these changes by calculating the OCT signal, m, using
Eqs. (2), (6), (6A), (6B), (60) and (7). The dependence of the
896
signal on birefringence is plotted in Fig. 5 for several different
orientations of the polarizer with respect to a characteristic
direction. It is characterized by a single index of refraction.
Light whose plane of polarization is parallel to this direction
remains plane-polarized. It is precisely this type of variation in
the optical signal due to a temperature change in the glass that
must be distinguished from a change due to the electric current.
Let's examine Fig. 5. The plots indicate that the measured
signal, for a given current, can be greater than or less than the
"true value". The signal varies with the total birefringence, Ill,
in different ways depending on how the polarizer is oriented
with respect to the characteristic direction.
For a = 0' the OCT signal decreases with increasing
birefringence. At a = 20' the opposite occurs and the OCT
signal Increases. The method described in this paper is based
on the fact that there is an intermediate value of a for which the
curve in Fig. 5 is nearly' flat. At that intermediate setting of the
polarizer, the OCT signal exhibits essentially no dependence on
the birefringence. This means temperature changes that cause
stress-Induced birefringence in the Faraday glass do not affect
the OCT signal and high-accuracy measurements are possible.
1.1
...J
« 2�
z nearly flat curve. The angle is near a 33". It Is sufficient that
Cl
iii 300
f- 1.0
0 changes. In reality, as the polarizer is turned through 360-
0
u..
0
w
o 400
i= .90
Z glass in the gap of a magnetic field concentrator. The general
Cl 00
«
::;:
w 1.3cm thick. The Verdet constant olthe glass at 820nm was 10
> 500
i= .80 ,
«
I
�SEE L
I I
...J
w 600
a: �FIG.61
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
TOTAL BIREFRINGENCE (RADIANS) (3L
Fig. S Calculations show that stress induced
birefringence alters the optical signal produced by the
Faraday effect. The amount of change depends on
the angle, a, that the polarizer makes with the
characteristic direction. The relative magnitude of the
signal is given by the ratio of m(.8L)/m(o).
In a series of calculations using Eq. (2), (6), (6A), (6B), and (6C)
we were able to show that one of the specific polarizer angles
that produces a nearly "flat" response is a = 10.3- . These
results are plotted in Fig. 6 over a range of values of
birefringence typical of glasses used in these sensors. Fig. 6
indicates several things. First, the OCT signal varies in a
slightly different manner with birefringence depending on the
current in the powerline. Remember, we're showing the �
change in the OCT signal from its "true value' at zero
birefringence. The actual signal at 4000A is 40X the signal at
100A.
+0. 3%
t
EQUIVALENT
01=10.3°
+0.2%
LIMITS FOR
a: ANSI C57.13
@+0.1%
a:
w
!z +o.o% �--lff;r..£����t-i
w
�-0.1%
w
Q.
-0.2%
-0.3%
.24 . 26 . 28 .30 .32 .34
TOTAL BIREFRINGENCE (RADIANS) {3L
Fig. 6 Theoretical performance of the OCT as a
function of birefringence and current. The percent
error is defined as 100 X (m(.8L) - m(o»/m(o).
Examining Fig. S once again, it is evident that in addition to an
angle a = 10.3' some a between 30' and 40' also produces a
=
there is one angle at which the polarizer can be set that makes
the OCT signal independent of the effects of temperature
there are eight such angles,
The results shown in Figs. S an 6 are not universal. These
ligures show results for an OCT design using a block of SFS
design is shown in Fig, 2a. A folded optical path provided a
path length of ,513m using a glass block only 8.9cm X S.Scm X
rad/Tm. The total birefringence in the glass was approximately
0.28 rad, and this varied from 0.24 to 0.34 rad as the
temperature was changed. The 7.6cm gap in the magnetic field
concentrator produce a value of K, in Eq. (2) equal to 13.1 (A­
tums/m)A.
The errors introduced with the technique are calculated to be
+.03% to -.07% about the ideal case over a range of values of
birefringence of 0.24 to 0.34 radians, and currents up to 4000A
For comparison, the equivalent tolerances on conventional
instrument grade CT's are :1:0.3% are also shown in Fig. 6.
4.0 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
We have measured the ac output signal from the concentrator­
based OCT defined at the end of section 3.2, and illustrated in
Fig. 2a. This output was compared to the 5A current from a
standard, calibrated instrument transformer. The ambient
temperature surrounding the sensor head optics was varied
from -5' C to 80' C. (Problems with the refrigeration equipment
prevented us from achieving lower temperatures.) Over this
temperature range the OCT signal was stable to within +0.14%
and -.03% of its value at room temperature (23'C). This data
was taken at SOOA.
Separate experiments with a Soleil-Babinet compensator
showed the total birefringence was near 0.28 radians and as
the temperature was increasing, the birefringence increased to

near 0.32 to 0.34 radians. This is why we plotted the expanded
scale in Fig. 6 from 0.24 to 0.34 radians.
Not shown explicitly in Fig. 5 is the fact that the extremes for
the family of curves occurred at a 22.5' and a = 67.5'. The
= (or "tum") around the power line. To set the polarizer at the
latter setting giving the largest change in the OCT signal for a
given change in the birefringence. The theory predicts a 1%
decrease in the output signal as the birefringence changes from
0.26 to 0.32 radians of the polarizer is set to a= 67.5'.
We confirmed this "worst case" by setting the polarizer to
67.5', heating to 72'C and observing a 1% decrease in the
OCT signal.
5.0 DISCUSSION
5.1 Experimental Data
The variation of the concentrator-based signal is larger than
expected from the theory. We believe most of the variation is
due to the effects of thermal expansion. First, the optical
system was suspended from the power line by two phenolic
supports. The expansion of these supports probably moved
the glass sensing element within the large gap of the
concentrator. Second, the concentrator itself expanded or
contracted with temperature, thereby changing the width of the
gap and hence the magnetic field in the gap. A 50'C change
in temperature could alter the magnetic field by .05%.
5.2 Ring-Design OCT
The advantages of the concentrator-based OCT were: (1) a
higher magnetic field in the Faraday glass created a more
sensitive transducer, and (2) the optical system was simpler
(one piece of glass vs. four).
Because of the problems with thermal expansion, we have
designed an OCT based on a ring of glass surrounding the
power line as illustrated in Fig. 2b. This ring design avoids the
problems of thermal expansion because the Faraday rotation,
e, as shown in Eq. (4) does not depend on the position of the
glass. Instead, its behavior is analogous to transformers: the
Faraday rotation depends on the current through the ring and
the number of turns the light makes around the power line.
(Note the product p.V has units of rad/A-tum.) The analogy to
transformers is even stronger and is again the result of Eqs. (3)
and (4): The ring of glass is self-shielding. That is, neariby
currents that do not go through the ring have no effect on the
Faraday rotation.
Using a glass with a Verdet constant of 6.9 rad/Tm, a ring OCT
can be designed to measure currents from 20A to 4OO0A with
high-accuracy for metering applications. This same ring-design
in which the light circles the power line just once can also
measure transient currents to 50KA fully offset with a peak
factor of 2.7 X (or 135KA peak.) Hence the one optical design
will function for relaying as well as metering applications.
6.0 CONCLUSION
The results indicate the new method can accurately measure
current over a wide range of temperatures. The principal
benefits of this new method over the previous technique are:
(1) fewer optical fibers connect the control electronics with the
sensor head (two vs. three), (2) the control electronics are
straight-forward analog circuits (vs. more complex,
microcomputer-based digital processing), and (3) the method
can be applied to optical current sensors with a variety of
897
geometries and materials. For example, OCT's can be
constructed from: (1) single-mode fibers coiled around the
power line, (2) bulk glass, sometimes with magnetic field
concentrators, and (3) several glass elements that create a loop
correct angle you need only know the Verdet constant, the total
birefringence, and the optical path length in the Faraday
material. Then through Eq. (6) you can calculate the polarizer
angle, a, that minimizes the deviation of the signal from the 'true
value' of m = sin 2e. The analyzer is then set to an angle .,p =
a + 45'.
By using this new technique the designer has essentially
eliminated the effects of temperature on the Faraday glass.
Remarkably, the simple form of Eq. (5A) can then be used.
7.0 GLOSSARY OF SYMBOLS
e Faraday rotation angle (rad)
permeability of free s�ace (T m/A)
p.
V Verdet cOnstant (radfT m)
H Magnetic field intensity (A-tum/m)
L path length of light In glass (m)
I current (A)
K geometry-dependent constant relating current to magnetic
field intensity (A-tum/m)/A
r optical power tyo/)
F Faraday rotation per unit length (rad/m)
fJ birefringence per unit length (rad/m)
combined Faraday rotation and birefringence parameter
�
(rad/m)
a angle polarizer transmission axis makes with characteristic
direction in the Faraday glass (rad)
.,p angle analyzer transmission axis makes with characteristic
direction in the Faraday glass (rad)
m modulation of optical and electrical signal (unit-less)
N Number of turns the light makes around the conductor
(unit-less)
D Denotes 'detector"
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am grateful to Tom Meyer for discussions of Faraday rotation
and electronic signal processing. This work also benefitted
from the skilled technical support of M. Ficco and P. O'Malley.
It is a pleasure to acknowledge the support and encouragement
of Bob VanScoyoc and George Pressley.
REFERENCES
1. S. Saito, J. Hamasaki, Y. Fujii, K. Yokoyama, and Y. Ohno,
"Development of the laser current transformer for extra­
high-voltage power transmission lines', IEEE J. Quant.
Elec., vol QE-3, pp. 569-597, Nov. 1967.
2. A.J. Rogers, "Method for the simultaneous measurement
of current and voltage on high-voltage lines using optical
techniques," Proc. lEE, Vol. 123, pp. 957-960, Oct. 1976.
3. S.C. Rashleigh and R. Ulrich, "Magneto-optic current
sensing with birefringent fibers', Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 34,
pp. 766-770, June 1979.
898

4. D.C. Erickson, "The use of fiber optics for Dr. Ulmer is a member of IEEE, the American Physical Society,
communications, measurement, and control within high­ and the Optical Society of America. He holds two patents and
voltage substations,' IEEE Trans. on Pwr. Appr. and Syst., has authored ten technical articles.
vol. PAS-99, pp. 1057-1065, May/June 1980.

5. R.H. Stolen and E.H. Turner, "Faraday rotation in highly

birefringent fibers", Appl. Opt., vol. 19, pp. 842-845. 15
March 1960.

6. G.w. Day, D.N. Payne, A.J. Barlow, and J.J. Ramskov­

Hanson, "Faraday rotation in coiled, monomode optical
fibers: Isolators, filters, and magnetic sensors', Opt. Lett.,
vol. 7, pp. 238-240, May 1982.

7. M. Kanoi, G. Takahashi, T. Sato, M. Higaki, E. Mori, and K.

Okumura, 'Optical voltage and current measuring system
for electric power systems', IEEE Trans. on Pwr. Del., vol.
PVVRD-1, pp. 91-97, Jan. 1986.

8. P. R . Forman and F.C. Jahoda, "Linear birefringence effects

on fiber·optic current sensors", App. Opt., vol. 27, pp.
3088-3096,1988.

9. N. F. Elorelli, "Faraday rotation in glasses," J. of Chem.

Phys., vol. 41, pp 3289-3293, 1 Dec. 1964.

10. W.J. Tabor and F.S. Chen, "Electromagnetic propagation

through materials possessing both Faraday rotation and
birefringence: experiments with Ytterbium Orthoferrite"' J.
Appl. Phys., 40, pp. 2760-2765, 1969.

11. E.A. Ulmer, Jr., "High accuracy Faraday rotation

measurements', OSA/IEEE 1986 Technical Digest of
Optical Fiber Sensors Topical Meeting, January 27·29,
1008, New Orleans, LA, pp. 288-291.

12. A.A. Jaecklin and M. Lietz," Eliminaton of distrubing

birefringence effects on Faraday rotation:, Applies Optics,
vol. 11, 617-621, March 1972.

13. R. Ulrich and S.C. RClsh'r' Jh, "Fiber-optics device for

measuring the Intensity of an electric current using the
Faraday effect", U.S. Patent 4,539,519; Sept. 3, 1985.

Edward A. Ulmer, Jr., (Member. 1971)

was born on 2 September 1942 in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He
received his B.S. in physics at
Lafayette College (1964), and a Ph.D.
in physics from Pennsylvania State
University (1968).

Dr. Ulmer began his career developing

semiconductor lasers at Bell Labs. At
� the Singer Company, as manager of
an applied physics department, he
led work on laser scanners and
liquid crystal displays. Later at Smiths
Industries, he designed avionic displays. After joining the
Square 0 Company in 1982 as a senior staff scientist, Dr. Ulmer
started the research program on optical current transducers.
In 1968, he assumed his present position of Manager of Optical
Sensors, and leads a group designing optical current
transducers.