 Let f be a function of a single variable defined on an interval.

Then f is concave if
every line segment joining two points on its graph is never above the graph convex if
every line segment joining two points on its graph is never below the graph.
 Let f be a function of a single variable defined on the interval I. Then f is concave if for
all a ∈ I, all b ∈ I, and all λ ∈ [0, 1] we have

f((1−λ)a + λb) ≥ (1 − λ)f(a) + λf(b)

convex if for all a ∈ I, all b ∈ I, and all λ ∈ [0, 1] we have

f((1−λ)a + λb) ≤ (1 − λ)f(a) + λf(b).

 f is convex if and only if −f is concave.

 a function is both concave and convex if and only if it is linear (or, more properly, affine),
taking the form f(x) = α + βx for all x, for some constants α and β.
 Let U be a concave function of a single variable and g a nondecreasing and concave
function of a single variable. Define the function f by f(x) = g(U(x)) for all x. Then f is
concave.
 A function f of a single variable defined on the interval I is concave if and only if for all n ≥
2

f(λ1x1 + ... + λnxn) ≥ λ1f(x1) + ... + λnf(xn)

for all x1 ∈ I, ..., xn ∈ I and all λ1 ≥ 0, ..., λn ≥ 0 with ∑ni=1λi = 1.

 The function f of a single variable defined on the interval I is convex if and only if for
all n ≥ 2

f(λ1x1 + ... + λnxn) ≤ λ1f(x1) + ... + λnf(xn)

for all x1 ∈ I, ..., xn ∈ I and all λ1 ≥ 0, ..., λn ≥ 0 with ∑ni=1λi = 1.

 The differentiable function f of a single variable defined on an open interval I is concave

on I if and only if

f(x) − f(x*) ≤ f'(x*)(x − x*) for all x ∈ I and x* ∈ I

and is convex on I if and only if

f(x) − f(x*) ≥ f'(x*)(x − x*) for all x ∈ I and x* ∈ I.

Prepared by Rajesh Garg

 A twice-differentiable function f of a single variable defined on the interval I is concave if
and only if f"(x) ≤ 0 for all x in the interior of I and convex if and only if f"(x) ≥ 0 for all x in
the interior of I.
 The point c is an inflection point of a twice-differentiable function f of a single
variable if f"(c) = 0 and for some values of a and b with a < c < b we have either f"(x) > 0
if a < x < c and f"(x) < 0 if c < x < b or f"(x) < 0 if a < x < c and f"(x) > 0 if c < x < b.
 If f "(x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a,b) then f is strictly concave on [a, b], but the converse is
not true: if f is strictly concave then its second derivative is not necessarily
negative at all points.
 The function g of a single variable is defined by g(x) = f(ax + b), where f is a concave
function of a single variable that is not necessarily differentiable, and a and b are
constants with a ≠ 0. (These constants may be positive or negative.) the function g is
concave
 The function f(x) is concave, but not necessarily differentiable. function af(x) + b is
concave. If any only if a ≥ 0
 F(y) – f(x) ≥ Df(x) (y-x) if x is open and convex
 The functions f and g are both concave functions of a single variable. Neither function is
necessarily differentiable. h(x) = f(x) + g(x) necessarily concave and the
function h defined by h(x) = −f(x) necessarily convex but the function h(x) = f(x)g(x) not
necessarily either convex or concave. h(x) = min{f(x),g(x)} is concave
 A set S of n-vectors is convex if (1−λ)x + λx' ∈ S whenever x ∈ S, x' ∈ S, and λ ∈ [0,1].
We call (1 − λ)x + λx' a convex combination of x and x'.
 The intersection of convex sets is convex. But the union of convex sets is not necessarily
convex.
 Let f be a function of many variables defined on the convex set S. Then f is concave on
the set S if for all x ∈ S, all x' ∈ S, and all λ ∈ (0,1) we have

f((1−λ)x + λx') ≥ (1−λ)f(x) + λf(x')

convex on the set S if for all x ∈ S, all x' ∈ S, and all λ ∈ (0,1) we have

f((1−λ)x + λx') ≤ (1−λ)f(x) + λf(x').

 f be a linear function, defined by f(x) = a1x1 + ... + anxn = a·x on a convex set, where ai is
a constant for each i. Then f is both concave and convex:
 the function g of a single variable is concave on [a,b], and the function f of two variables
is defined by f(x,y) = g(x) on [a, b] × [c, d]. f is concave.Let f and g be defined as in the
previous example. Assume now that g is strictly concave. but f is not strictly concave.
 A function f of many variables defined on the convex set S is concave if and only if the
set of points on or below its graph is convex: {(x, y): x ∈ S and y ≤ f(x)} is convex and
convex if and only if the set of points on or above its graph is convex:
{(x, y): x ∈ S and y ≥ f(x)} is convex.
 The differentiable function f of n variables defined on a convex set S is concave on S if
and only if

f(x) − f(x*) ≤ ∑n

Prepared by Rajesh Garg

 i=1f'i(x*)·(xi − x*i) for all x ∈ S and x* ∈ S

and is convex on S if and only if

f(x) − f(x*) ≥ ∑n
i=1f'i(x*)·(xi − x*i) for all x ∈ S and x* ∈ S.

 Let f be a function of many variables with continuous partial derivatives and cross partial
derivatives on the convex open set S and denote the Hessian of f at the point x by H(x).
Then f is concave if and only if H(x) is negative semidefinite for all x ∈ S; if H(x)
is negative definite for all x ∈ S then f is strictly concave; f is convex if and only if H(x)
is positive semidefinite for all x ∈ S; if H(x) is positive definite for all x ∈ S then f is strictly
convex.
 If f and g are concave and a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0 then the function h defined
by h(x) = af(x) + bg(x) for all x is concave. If f and g are convex and a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0 then
the function h defined by h(x) = af(x) + bg(x) for all x is convex.
 Let U be a function of many variables and let g be a function of a single variable.
If U is concave and g is nondecreasing and concave then the function f defined
by f(x) = g(U(x)) for all x is concave. If U is convex and g is nondecreasing and convex
then the function f defined by f(x) = g(U(x)) for all x is convex.
 The function f (of n variables) is concave, and the function g (of n variables) is
convex. Neither function is necessarily differentiable. the function h defined
by h(x) = af(x) − bg(x), where a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0 are constants, is necessarily concave.
 The functions f, of many variables, and g, of a single variable, are concave, but not
necessarily differentiable. Define the function h by h(x) = g(f(x)) for all x. function h is
concave but not Necessarily.
 f and g are concave h(x)= min{ f(x),g(x)} is concave. f and g are convex h(x)= max{
f(x),g(x)} is convex.
 f be a function of many variables defined on the set S. For any real number a, the set
Pa = {x ∈ S: f(x) ≥ a}is called the upper level set of f for a. The function f of many
variables defined on a convex set S is quasiconcave if every upper level set of f is
convex. (That is, Pa = {x ∈ S: f(x) ≥ a} is convex for every value of a.)
 Let f be a function of many variables defined on the set S. For any real number a, the set
Pa = {x ∈ S: f(x) ≤ a} is called the lower level set of f for a. The function f of many
variables defined on a convex set S is quasiconvex if every lower level set of f is
convex. (That is, Pa = {x ∈ S: f(x) ≤ a} is convex for every value of a.)
 A concave function is quasiconcave. A convex function is quasiconvex. The converse of
this result is not true: a quasiconcave function may not be concave.
 Let U be a function of many variables and let g be a function of a single variable.
If U is quasiconcave (quasiconvex) and g is increasing then the function f defined
by f(x) = g(U(x)) for all x is quasiconcave (quasiconvex) . If U is quasiconcave
(quasiconvex) and g is decreasing then the function f defined by f(x) = g(U(x)) for
all x is quasiconvex (quasiconcave).

Prepared by Rajesh Garg

 A function f of a single variable defined on an interval I is quasiconcave if and only if
there exists a number x* such that f is nondecreasing on {x ∈ I: x ≤ x*} and nonincreasing
on {x ∈ I: x ≥ x*}.
 The function f of many variables defined on a convex set S is quasiconcave if and only if
for all x ∈ S and x' ∈ S such that f(x) ≥ f(x') we have f((1−λ)x + λx') ≥ f(x') for all λ ∈ [0, 1].
 a function is quasiconcave if and only if the line segment joining the points on two level
curves lies nowhere below the level curve corresponding to the lower value of the
function.
 The differentiable function f of n variables defined on a convex
set S is quasiconcave on S if and only if

x ∈ S, x* ∈ S, and f(x) ≥ f(x*) imply ∑n

i=1f'i(x*)·(xi − x*i) ≥ 0

and is quasiconvex on S if and only if

x ∈ S, x* ∈ S, and f(x) ≤ f(x*) imply ∑n

i=1f'i(x*)·(xi − x*i) ≤ 0.

 If f is quasiconcave then D1(x) ≤ 0, D2(x) ≥ 0, ..., Dn(x) ≤ 0 if n is odd and Dn(x) ≥ 0 if n is

even, for all x in S. (Note that the first condition is automatically satisfied.)
If f is quasiconvex then Dk(x) ≤ 0 for k = 1, ..., n for all x in S. (Note that the first condition
is automatically satisfied.)
 Consider the function f(x) = x2 for x > 0 this function is both quasiconcave and
quasiconvex on the set {x: x > 0}. Consider the function f(x1, x2) = x1x2. For x > 0 the
function is quasiconcave and not quasiconvex on the set {x: x > 0}.
 The function f of many variables defined on a convex set S is strictly quasiconcave if
for all x ∈ S, all x' ∈ S with x' ≠ x, and all λ ∈ (0,1) we have if f(x) ≥ f(x') then f((1−λ)x +
λx') > f(x').
 f(x) = x3 is strictly quasiconcave.
 the sum of quasiconcave(quasiconvex) functions is not necessarily quasiconcave(quasi
convex).
 f is concave and the function g is quasiconcave; neither is necessarily differentiable. the
function h defined by h(x) = f(x) + g(x) is not necessarily quasiconcave
 The functions f and g of a single variable are concave (but not necessarily differentiable).
h defined by h(x) = f(x)g(x) is not necessarily quasiconcave.
 The cobb douglas function z= Ax1aix2aii……..xnan if all ai are positive so function is
quasiconcave if sum of ai is less than equals to 1 so function is concave.
 Definition (Quasi-concave/Quasi-convex). Let f:Rn→Rf:Rn→R. We say
that ff is quasi-concave if for all x,y∈Rnx,y∈Rn and for all λ∈[0,1]λ∈[0,1] we have
 f(λx+(1−λ)y)≥min{f(x),f(y)}.f(λx+(1−λ)y)≥min{f(x),f(y)}.
 And a function is quasi-convex if −f−f is quasi-concave, or
 f(λx+(1−λ)y)≤max{f(x),f(y)}.
 the probability density function of the normal distribution is quasiconcave but not concave.

 Every convex function is quasiconvex.

Prepared by Rajesh Garg

 A concave function can be quasiconvex function. For example is concave, and it is
quasiconvex.
 Any monotonic function is both quasiconvex and quasiconcave. More generally, a function
which decreases up to a point and increases from that point on is quasiconvex
(compare unimodality).
 The floor function is an example of a quasiconvex function that is neither convex nor
continuous.
 F: R→ R, F is increasing so f is quasi convex

Prepared by Rajesh Garg


 1. For any system of equations, Ax = b, only one of the following three possibilities hold.
 (a) The system has no solution. (b) The system has a unique solution.
 (c) The system has infinitely many solutions.
 2. For a homogeneous system of equations, Ax = 0, only one of the following two possibilities
hold.
 (a) The system has a unique solution. (b) The system has infinitely many solutions.
 When a system of equations Ax = b has at least one solution, we say that the system is
consistent, otherwise inconsistent.
 (i) If B = O, i.e. if B is null matrix, then system given by (2) reduces to AX = O and is
known as linear homogeneous system of equations. (ii) Homogeneous system is
always consistent.

 Matrix Method to solve the system AX = B
 Find |A|, If |A |≠ 0 , then system has unique solution and given by X = A-1 B
 |A| = 0, If (adjA)B ≠ O, then systems has no solution. If (adjA)B = O, then system has
infinite solutions and obtained by putting x or y or z equal to k, where k is any real
number.

 Find ∆, if ∆≠ 0 so unique solution,
 If ∆=0, If at least one of ∆1,∆2 ,∆3 ≠ 0 then system has no solution
 If ∆1 =∆2 =∆3 =0 then system has infinite solutions and obtained by putting x or y or z
equal to k, where k is any real number.

 Let A be an m x n matrix. Then rank(A) ≤ min(m,n).

 Let A be an m x n matrix. Then we say that A has full row rank if the rank of A equals the
number of rows of A, that is, if rank(A) = m. And similarly, we say that A has full column rank if
the rank of A equals the number of columns of A, that is, if rank(A) = n. Let A be an mxn
matrix and suppose that the system of equations Ax = b is consistent. Then its solution is
unique if and only if A has full column rank, that is, rank(A) = n.

 Let A be an m x n matrix. Then the system of equations Ax = b has at most one solution for
every b in Rm if and only if A has full column rank, that is, rank(A) = n.

 Let A be an m x n fat matrix, that is, n > m. Then the homogeneous system of equations
 Ax = 0 has infinitely many solutions.

 Let A be an m x n fat matrix, that is, n > m. Then the following assertions hold.
 (a) rank(A) ≤ m.
 (b) The homogeneous system of equations Ax = 0 has infinitely many solutions.
 (c) The system of equations Ax = b is either inconsistent or has infinitely many solutions (in
 other words, it never has a unique solution).
 (d) The system of equations Ax = b is consistent for every b in Rm if and only if rank(A) = m.

 Let A be an n x n square matrix. Then the following assertions hold.
 (a) rank(A) ≤ n.
 (b) The following are equivalent:
 (i) rank(A) = n.
 (ii) A is invertible.
 (iii) A is row equivalent to the n x n identity matrix.
 (iv) The homogeneous system of equations Ax = 0 has a unique (namely, the trivial) solution.
 (v) The system of equations Ax = b has a unique solution for every b in Rn.
 (vi) The system of equations Ax = b is consistent for every b in Rn.
 (vii) det A ≠ 0.

Prepared by Rajesh Garg

  (c) From part (b) it follows that the following are equivalent.
 (i) rank(A) < n.
 (ii) A is not invertible.
 (iii) A is not row equivalent to the n x n identity matrix.
 (iv) The homogeneous system of equations Ax = 0 has infinitely many solutions.
 (v) The system of equations Ax = b has infinitely many solutions for some b in Rn.
 (vi) The system of equations Ax = b is inconsistent for some b in R n.
 (vii) det A = 0.

 Let A be an m x n thin matrix, that is, n < m. Then the following assertions hold.
 (a) rank(A) ≤ n.
 (b) The homogeneous system of equations Ax = 0 has a unique (namely, the trivial) solution
 if and only if rank(A) = n (in other words, it has infinitely many solutions if and only if
 rank(A) < n).
 (c) The system of equations Ax = b is inconsistent for some b in R m (in other words, the
 system is never consistent for all b in Rm).
 (d) The system of equations Ax = b is has at most one solution for every b in R m if and only
 if rank(A) = n.

 LINEAR DEPENDENCE, INDEPENDENCE,

 The n vectors a1,a2,a3,……..an are linearly dependent if there exist numbers c1,c2…..cn not all zero
such that
 C1a1+c2a2………..+cn*an=0
 C1=c2=c3………cn=0 then the vectors are said to be linearly independent.
 {sin x, ex} is linearly independent
 in R2 any three vectors from a linearly dependent set.
 {sinx, cosx) is linearly independent,
 {sin x, cos x. sin (x+ ℼ/6 )is linearly dependent.
 {x2,x2+1}indepen
 {x2 +1,x2+11,2x2-3} indepen
 {3,x+1,x2,x2+2x+5}depen
 {1,x2, x3,x2+1} depen
 {1,x,x2,x3………} independent
 {1,x+1,x2+1,x3+1………..} independent

 A function T :Rn →Rm is called a linear transformation if for all u and v
 in Rn and all scalars c we have,
 T (u + v) = T (u) +T (v) ,T (cu) = cT (u)

 A subset of a linearly independent set is linearly independent.
 Let T: R3-+R3 : T (x, y, a) = (x + y, y, z). Is T an isomorphism 1-1 onto
 Let T : R3 + R2: T (x, y, Z) = (X + y, y + z). not 1-1 onto

 u.v =||u|| ||v|| cosθ
 u × v = ||u|| ||v|| sinθ
 |u.v| ≤ ||u|| ||v||
 Equation of line with two points.
 X= (1-t)a+tb where a and b are two points
 Equation of line with point p(x*,y*,z*) and direction a(a*,b*,c*) X= p+ta
 x-x*/a* = y-y*/b* = z-z*/c*

Prepared by Rajesh Garg

  hyperplanes : p.(x-a)=0 here a is point and p is normal
 |A.B|=|A||B| |A|=|A’|
The order relation ≤ has following properties. Anti symmetry. Transitivity

Zero and unity is a unique field.

the union and the intersection of any two bounded sets are bounded

The union of a countable number of countable sets is countable.

Set of R is not countable.

The set of all rational numbers between [0, I] is countable.

The set of all positive rational numbers is countable.

The set Q of all rational numbers is countable.

(0,1) IS NOT COUNTABLE

I X + Y | ≤ |x| +|y|

(i) The set R of real numbers is an open set

(ii) The null set is an open set
(iii) A finite set is not an open set
(iv) The interval ]a, b] is not an open set.

A number p is said to be a limit point of a set S of real numbers if every neighbourhood of p

contains at least one point of the set S different from p.
In the set S = [I, 2[, the number 1 is a limit point of S.
Every point in Q, (the set of rational numbers), is a limit point of Q,
The set N of natural numbers has no limit point
Every point of the interval ]a, b] is its limit point
Every point of the set [a, Ꝏ[ is a limit point of the sets. This is also true for ]- Ꝏ,a[.
The intervals [0, 1], ]0, 1[, ] 0, 1], [O,1 [ are all infinite and bounded sets. Therefore each of
these intervals has a limit point. In fact, each of these intervals has an infinite number of limit
points because every point in each interval is a limit
point of the interval.
The set [a, Ꝏ [ is infinite and unbounded set but has every point as a limit point.
This shows that the condition of boundedness of an infinite set is only sufficient in the
theorem.
A set is said to be closed if it contains all its limit points
(ii) An open interval is not a closed set.
(iii) The set R is a closed set because every real number is a limit point of R and it belongs to
R.
(vi) he set ]a, m[ is not a closed set, but ]Ꝏ, a] is a closed set.
(v) The set S = [x E R: a I x belongs to b). closed
(vi) The sets [a, m[ and ]-a, a[. closed, open

F(x)= sin x is one one and onto x belongs to [-PIE/2, PIE/2]

Modulus function is not one one and not onto

Greatest integer is not one one and not onto

NEIGHBOUR HOOD Open set Closed set

Prepared by Rajesh Garg

Null Y Y Y
R Y Y Y
(a,b) Y Y N
[a,b] N N Y
Z N N Y
Q N N N
Q© N N N
N N N Y

FINITE INFINITE
UNION OPEN OPEN OPEN
CLOSED OPEN CLOSED
INTERSECTION OPEN CLOSED OPEN
CLOSED CLOSED CLOSED

COUNTABLE UNCOUNTABLE
UNION OPEN OPEN OPEN
OPEN OPEN** CLOSED
INTERSECTION CLOSED CLOSED** OPEN
CLOSED CLOSED CLOSED

definition 1: Let X be a non-empty set. A metric d on X is a function

d : X * X → R, such that, for x, y, z ↋ X,
1) d(x,y)≥ 0 and d(x,y) = 0 if and only if x=y
2) d(x,y) =d(y,x)
3) d(x,y) ≤ d(x,z) + d(y,z) for x, y, z ↋ X,
1. d(x, y) = |x – y|. usual metric or the standard metric or Euclidean metric
2. d(x,y) = √(x1-x2)^2 +(y1-y2)^2
3. d(x, y) = {0, if x = y , 1, if x ≠ y . discrete metric
4. d(x,y)= |x1 –y1|+ |x2-y2| taxicab metric
5. d(x,y)= max{ |x1 –y1|, |x2-y2|}
6. every set X has atleast one metric on it.
7. d(x,y)= 5|x – y|
8. d(x, y) = d(x, y) /1+ d(x, y)
9. ꝓ = min[1,d(x, y) ]
10. d(x, y) = sup{| f(x) – g(x)|}

Proposition 2: Let f : [O, 1]→t R be continuous with f(t)≥0 for t ↋ [0, 1].
Then ∫f(t)dt = 0 (limit 0 to 1) if and only if f(t) = 0 for t ↋ [0, 1].
Identity and constant function is continuous

g○f is injective then f is injective

g○f is surjective then g is surjective
AM≥ GM
(1+X)^n ≥ 1+ nX
K(n) game, A win to converge, B win to diverge

Prepared by Rajesh Garg

Sum product division linear transformation of converging sequences converge too, but
division converge only if denominator is not equal to zero.
Absolute value, square root , max, min,mid of converging sequence is converge
1/root n+1 diverges, 1/n! converge
Lim x*sin(1/x) =0 when x=0

SEQUENCES

divergent ± divergent is may converge

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converge + diverge may converge

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 A

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 0

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MONOTONICITY

f(x) is strictly increasing if f’(X)≥ 0 (consider point of inflexion also) and sufficient if we are
defining on open interval with </>.

f(x) is strictly decreasing if f’(X)≤ 0 (consider point of inflexion also)

let f be defined on [0,1] be twice differentiable such that |f ’’(x)| ≤ 1 for all xϵ [0,1]. If f(0) = f(1)
then |f’(x)| <1

Let f : R | R be a differentiable function such that f(x)* f'(x) < 0 for all x ∈ R. Then |f(x)| is a
decreasing function
Let f : R | R be a differentiable function such that f(x)* f'(x) > 0 for all x ∈ R. Then |f(x)| is an
increasing function

Prepared by Rajesh Garg

P AND C


n
NO. of ways of selecting ‘r’ articles from ‘n’ distinct article is Cr

n-1
NO. of ways of selecting ‘r’ articles from ‘n’ distinct article if 1 article is always included is Cr-1

n-k
NO. of ways of selecting ‘r’ articles from ‘n’ distinct article if k article is always included is Cr-k

n
The total number of ways of selecting one or more at a time of ‘n’ different things is 2 -1
 Total number of ways of selecting one or more things from ‘p’ identical things of one type, ‘r’ identical
rd n
things of 3 type and ‘n’ distinct things is (n+1)(q+1)(r+1)2 -1
 N= a b c d number of factor (p+1)(q+1)(r+1)(s+1)
p q r s

 N= 2 a b c number of even factor n(p+1)(q+1)(r+1)

n p q r

 N= 2 a b c number of odd factor (p+1)(q+1)(r+1)

n p q r

 No. of straight line if no three point are collinear C2 if k point are collinear C2 - C2 + 1
n n k

 No. of triangles from given ‘n’ points if no three of them collinear C3

n

 No. of polygons of k sides from given ‘n’ points if no three of them collinear Ck
n

 No. of diagonals of a polygon of ‘n’ sides ,n*(n-3)/2}

 No. of squares in a chess board of n rows: sum of squares of n natural no.
 No. of rectangles in a chess board of n rows: sum of cube of n natural no.
 Select and then arrange method.
 Circular permutation (n-1)!
 Garland, necklaces (n-1)!/2
 Formation of word n!/ {p!*q!*r!}
 11 is divisible if difference sum of digits in the odd and sum of digits in the even is divisible by 0 or 11
 7 or 13 is divisible if difference between number of thousands and remainder of the division by 1000
is divisible by 7 or 13
 Sum of all digits formed = (no. of number formed* sum of digits*11111..n times)/4
 Distribution N identical things among r distinct group or people,
n+r-1
Cr-1
 Distribution N distinct things among r distinct group or people, r (where )
n what

 Number of ways in which n different things can be arranged into r different things
n+r-1
Pr-1 (When
groups can be empty)
 Number of ways in which n different things can be arranged into r different things Cr-1 (When
n-1

groups can not be empty)

 No. of ways of dividing m+n distinct things in two group containing m and n items, (m+n)! /m!*n!

n
No. of ways of dividing nm distinct things in n group containing m article in each group, (nm)! /m! *n!

n
No. of ways of dividing nm distinct things in n people containing m article with each people, (nm)! /m!
 No. of integral solution
n+r-1
Cr-1
 No. of positive solution Cr-1
n-1


n 2
(1+x) = 1 + nx/1! + n(n-1)x /2! + ……..

n 2
(1-x) = 1 - (-n)(-x)/1! + (-n)(-n-1)(-x )/2! + ……..
 Dearrangement D(1)=0, D(2)=1, D(3)=2, D(4)=9, D(5)=44
D(n)= n!{1/0! -1/1! + 1/2! ……………………-1/n!}
n
Partial dearrangement if r item are dearranged Cr D(r)

AP GP HP

 AM≥GM≥HM
 GM=√AM*HM
 Five terms of harmonic progression 10, 30, −30, −10, −6,

Prepared by Rajesh Garg

  Three terms in HP 6,3,2
 HM used in average speed
 An = a +(n-1)d
 Sum of AP = n/2 { 2a +(n-1) d}
 If an AP consist of m terms then nth terms from the end is equal to (m-n+1)th term
from beginning
 Reciprocal of GP forms a GP
 Nth term of GP = arn-1
 If an GP consist of m terms then nth terms from the end is equal to (m-n+1)th term
from beginning arm-n
 Let a and b be two given no. if n no. are inserted in between them so that a GP is
formed so r=(b/a)1/n+1
 Let a and b be two given no. if n no. are inserted in between them so that a AP is
formed so d= (b-a)/n+1 and sum of these inserted no is n(a+b/2)

Trigonometry
 All school to colleges
 Sin2x = (sinx)2
0 ℼ/6 ℼ/4 ℼ/3 ℼ/2 ℼ 3 ℼ/2 2ℼ
Sin 0 ½ 1/√2 √3/2 1 0 -1 0
Cos 1 √3/2 1/√2 ½ 0 1 0 1
tan 0 1/√3 1 √3 nd 0 nd 0

Sin (90 +a)= cos a

cos (90 +a)= -sin a
tan (90 +a)= -cot a

Sin (180 -a)= sin a

cos (180 -a)= -cos a
tan (180 -a)= -tan a

Sin (360 -a)= -sin a

cos (360 -a)= cos a
tan (360 -a)= -tan a

sin 1 0.00014
cos 1 0.99983

Sin (180 +a)= -sin a

cos (180 +a)= -cos a
tan (180 +a)= tan a

Prepared by Rajesh Garg

  Void relation : R is the void relation on A
 Universal relation : A x A ⸦ A x A
 Identity relation : IA = {(a,a): a ꞓ A }
 Reflexive relation : identity relation, universal relation, every natural no. is greater than or
equal to itself
 Symmetric relation : identity and universal relation, symmetric if R = R-1
 Transitive relation : identity and universal, x is less than y
 Antisymmetric relation : identity, x less than equal to,
 If A and B has n elements in common, then A x B AND B x A has n^2 elements.
 No. of relations from A to B if A has m elements and B has n elements.
 a≤ b reflexive, transitive but not symmetric
 |a-b| is even or multiple of 4, equivalence
 x-y is divisible by n, equivalence relation
 intersection of equivalence, inverse is equivalence, union is nor reflexive( not transitive)
 |x-y|≤ 1, reflexive and symmetric

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  Equivalence relation : x-y is divisible by n

if set A has m elements and set B has n elements, mapping A to B

 No. of function nm
 No. of one one function nPm
 No. of onto function nm – (2n – 2)
 No. o one one and onto function n!

A mapping is called as function if every element of set A is associated to unique element of B and
every element of A has a image on set B

 Sqrt ( x2 )= |x|
 Greater integer is known as flooring
 Least integer is ceiling
 Range of f is the co-domain f
 F is an injection if n(A)≤ n(B) , F is a surjection if n(B)≤ n(A) , F is a bijection if n(A) = n(B) ,
 Some non bijective function x2, [x],|x|, cos x
 Bijective function : 1/x, ax+b, x/1+|x|

Functions domain Range

√x-[x] R [0,1)
√*x+ – x Ø Ø
1/√x-[x] R-Z *1,ꚙ)
1/√x+*x+ (0, ꚙ) R+
1/√x-|x| Ø Ø
1/√x+|x| (0, ꚙ) R+

No. of power set 2n

P Q P^Q PvQ P→Q p↔q ¬ 1

T T T T T T ∧ 2
T F F T F F ∨ 3
F T F T T F → 4
F F F F T T ↔ 5

The proposition q → p is called the converse of p → q.

The contrapositive of p → q is the proposition ¬q → ¬p.
The proposition ¬p → ¬q is called the inverse of p → q.

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NECESSARY AND SUFFICENT CONDITIONS

"If P then Q", we say that "Q is necessary for P" because P cannot be true unless Q is true.
Similarly, we say that "P is sufficient for Q" because P being true always implies that Q is true,
but P not being true does not always imply that Q is not true.
The assertion that a statement is a "necessary and sufficient" condition of another means that
the former statement is true if and only if the latter is true.

UNIT DIGIT
For the concept of identifying the unit digit, we have to first familiarize with the concept of
cyclicity. Cyclicity of any number is about the last digit and how they appear in a certain defined
manner. Let’s take an example to clear this thing:

The cyclicity chart of 2 is:

21 =2
22 =4
23 =8
24=16
25=32
Have a close look at the above. You would see that as 2 is multiplied every-time with its own self,
the last digit changes. On the 4th multiplication, 25 has the same unit digit as 21. This shows us
the cyclicity of 2 is 4, that is after every fourth multiplication, the unit digit will be two.
Cyclicity table:
The cyclicity table for numbers is given as below:

Prepared by Rajesh Garg

How did we figure out the above? Multiply and see for yourself. It’s good practice.
Now let us use the concept of cyclicity to calculate the Unit digit of a number.
What is the unit digit of the expression 4993?
Now we have two methods to solve this but we choose the best way to solve it i.e. through
cyclicity
We know the cyclicity of 4 is 2
Have a look:
41 =4
42 =16
43 =64
44 =256
From above it is clear that the cyclicity of 4 is 2. Now with the cyclicity number i.e. with 2 divide
the given power i.e. 993 by 2 what will be the remainder the remainder will be 1 so the answer
when 4 raised to the power one is 4.So the unit digit in this case is 4.
For checking whether you have learned the topic, think of any number like this, calculate its unit
digit and then check it with the help of a calculator.
Note : If the remainder becomes zero in any case then the unit digit will be the last digit
of acyclicity number
where a is the given number and cyclicity number is shown in above figure.
Lets solve another example:
The digit in the unit place of the number 7295 X 3158 is
A. 7
B. 2
C. 6
D. 4
Solution
The Cyclicity table for 7 is as follows:
71 =7
72 =49
73 = 343
74 = 2401
Let’s divide 295 by 4 and the remainder is 3.
Thus, the last digit of 7295 is equal to the last digit of 73 i.e. 3.
The Cyclicity table for 3 is as follows:
31 =3
32 =9
33 = 27
34 = 81
35 = 243

Prepared by Rajesh Garg

Let’s divide 158 by 4, the remainder is 2. Hence the last digit will be 9.
Therefore, unit’s digit of (7925 X 3158) is unit’s digit of product of digit at unit’s place of 7925 and
3158 = 3 * 9 = 27. Hence option 1 is the answer.

Binomial theorem

1. ( ) ∑ ( )
( )
2. ( )
𝜋
3. ∫ [∫ ∫ ] [∫ ∫ 𝜃]

[𝜋 ∫ ] √𝜋
4. If n is even, then (n/2 + 1 )th term is the middle term
5. If n is odd, then (n+1/2) and (n+3/2) are middle term
6. If n is odd (x+a)^n + (x-a)^n contains (n+1)/2 terms
7. If n is even (x+a)^n + (x-a)^n contains (n/2+1)terms
8. If n is odd (x+a)^n - (x-a)^n contains (n+1)/2 terms
9. If n is even (x+a)^n - (x-a)^n contains (n)/2 terms
10. Sum of coefficient of expression (x+y)^n is 2^n, expression (1-3x+x^2)^111 is -1
11. (x +y +z)^n no. of terms are (n+1)*(n+2)/2
12. Expansion has n+1 terms
13. Tr+1= nCr xn-r ar
14. If O and E denote respectively the sum of odd and even terms in the expansion (x+a)^n
 (x+a)^n = O+ E
 (x-a)^n = O-E
 (x^2 –a^2)^n = O^2 – E^2
 (x+a)^2n + (x-a)^2n = 2(O^2 + E^2)
 4OE= (x-a)^2n - (n-a)^2n

Prepared by Rajesh Garg