1

2
 3

Sec. (7-1) Inverse Functions and Their Derivatives

Def 'n.: A function f from a set D to a set Y is a rule that
assigns a unique (single) element f ( x) Y to each element
x  D .The set D of all possible input values is called the
domain of the function. The set of all values of f ( x) as x
varies throughout D is called the range of the function.
D R

x y y = f ( x)

Def 'n.: A function f ( x) is one-to-one on a domain D if x1  x2

in D , then f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )
 A function f ( x) is one-to-one on a domain D if x1 = x2
in D , then f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 )
Ex.: Is f ( x) = x3 + 4 one-to-one?
Sol'n.:

Ex.: Is f ( x) = x2 − 2 , x  one-to-one?
Sol'n.:
 4

The Horizontal line Test for One-to-One Functions

A function y = f ( x) is one-to-one if and only if its graph
intersects each horizontal line at most once.

Ex.: Which of the following functions are one-to-one and which

are not ?
1. f ( x) = x − 3

2. f ( x) = sin x

3. f ( x) = x + 1

Def 'n.: Inverse Functions

Suppose that f is a one-to-one function on a domain D
with range R .The inverse function f −1 is defined by
f −1 (b) = a if f (a) = b .
The domain of f −1 is R and the range of f −1 is D .
 5

Df Rf
a f
b
R f −1 f −1 D f −1

Notes:
1. D f = R f −1 & R f = D f −1
−1 1
2. f ( x)  .
f ( x)
3. Increasing functions and decreasing functions are one-to-
one, so they have an inverse.
(f f −1 )
( x)
= f ( f −1 ( x) ) = x , x  D f −1
−1
4. If f exists, then
(f −1
f ) ( x)
= f −1 ( f ( x) ) = x , x  D f
.

How to find f −1 algebraically?

1. Solve y = f ( x) for x .
2. Interchange x and y ; Obtaining a formula y = f −1 ( x) .

Ex.: Find a formula for f −1 and identify the domain and range of
f & f −1 if
1. y = f ( x) = ( x + 1) , x  −1.
2

Sol'n.:
 6

1
2. y = x +1.
2
Sol'n.:

3. y = x − 2 x , x  1 .
2

Sol'n.:

x+3
4. y = .
x−2
 7

How to find f −1 graphically?

To obtain the graph of y = f −1 from the graph of y = f ( x) reflect
the graph of f ( x) about the line y = x .

Ex.:
1. Graph f −1 ( x) if f ( x) = x3 −1 .
−1
2. Identify the domain and range of f & f .
Sol'n.:

Thm.: The Derivative Rule for Inverses

If f has an interval I as domain and f ( x) exists and is never
zero on I , then f −1 is differentiable at every point in its
domain (the range of f ).
The value of
df −1 1
=
dx x= f (a )
df
dx x=a
 8

df −1
Ex.: Let f ( x) = x2 , x  0 . Find the value of at x = 16 without
dx
finding a formula for f −1 ( x) .
Sol'n.:

df −1
Ex.: Let f ( x) = x − 3x −1 , x  2 . Find the value of
3 2
at the point
dx
x = −1 = f (3) .
Sol'n.:
 1

Sec.:7.2 Natural Logarithms

Def 'n.: The natural logarithm is the function given by:
x
1
ln x =  dt , x0
1
t
Notes:
1
1
1. If x = 1 , then ln1 =  dt = 0 .
1
t
x
1
2. If x  1 , then ln x =  dt is positive.
1
t
x
1
3. If 0  x  1 , then ln x =  dt is negative.
1
t
4. The function is not defined for x  0 .
5. The number e is that number in the domain of the natural
logarithm satisfying ln e = 1 .
The Derivative of y = ln x
By the first part of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:
x
d d 1 1
ln x =  dt = ;x  0.
dx dx 1 t x

d f ( x) d 1 du
In general: ln f ( x) = & ln u ( x) = .
dx f ( x) dx u ( x) dx

dy
Ex.: Find if
dx
1. y = ln( x + 10)
3
 2

2. y = ln x
Sol'n.:

3. y = ln(ln x)
Sol'n.:

dy
Ex.: Find if
dx
 1 
1. y = ln  .
 x x +1 
Sol'n.:
 3

 ( x 2 + 1)5 
2. y = ln  2 .
 sin x 
Sol'n.:

Logarithmic Differentiation
To find the derivative of f ( x)  0 , do the following
1. Let y = f ( x)
2. Take ln for both sides: ln y = ln f ( x) .(Expand)

= ( ln f ( x) )
1 dy
3. Differentiate both sides with respect to x :
y dx
dy
4. Solve for
dx .

Ex.: Use logarithmic differentiation to find the derivative of y if

1. y = ( x + 1) ( x + 2) ( x + 3) .
2 3 4

Sol'n.:
 4

x tan x
2. y = .
sec x
Sol'n.:

x x2 + 1
3. y = 2
( x + 1) 3

Sol'n.:
1
The integral  u du
 d 1
 dx ln x =
x 1
 →  dx = ln x + c
⎯⎯⎯⎯
We know that  d 1 x
ln(− x) =
 dx x
1 f ( x)
In general: •  u du = ln u + c • dx = ln f ( x) + c
f ( x)

Ex.: Evaluate the following integrals

7x
1. I =  dx .
3x 2 − 10
 5

3sec 2 x
2. I =  dx .
3tan x + 8

ln x
3. I =  x
dx .


4. I = tan x dx .


5. I = sec x dx .
 6

Graph of y = ln x
We see that:
d 1
* ln x =  0 , x  0
dx x
So, ln x is increasing.

d2 −1
* 2 ln x = 2  0 , x  0
dx x
So, ln x is concave down
x 1 1
1 2 4 8
4 2
y −2ln 2 − ln 2 0 ln 2 2ln 2 3ln 2

Answer the following questions

• D(ln x) =

• R(ln x) =

• limln x =
x→

• lim ln x =
x→0+
Sec.: 7.3 Exponential Functions

Def 'n.: For every real number x

e x  ln 1 x

Graph of ex :

Ex.: Answer the following questions

1. D (e )  2. R (e ) 
x x

3. lim e x  4. xlim e x

x  

Ex.: Simplify the following

1. ln e
2

2. ln e 
3ln x
3. e 

1
Ex.: Solve for x
53 x
1. e  10

2. ln(ln x)  1

3. ln(2 x  1)  2  ln x

2
 The Derivative of ex
To find the derivative of e x we use the logarithmic differentiation
method
Let y  ex
ln y  ln e x
ln y  x
differentiate both sides, we get
1 dy
1
y dx
dy
y
dx
d x
 e ex
dx
d f (x ) d u du
In general: e  e f ( x )f (x ) & e  eu
dx dx dx

dy
Ex.: Find if
dx
e 2x
1. y  2
x 3
Sol'n.:

3
 2. y  ecos x10
Sol'n.:

 ex 
3. y  ln  x 
 e 1
Sol'n.:

4. xe  4 x  ln  y  1  8
y

Sol'n.:

4
 The Integral of ex
d x x
e  e 
 e d x  e x c
x
we Know that :
dx

  c    c
u u f (x ) f (x )
e du e & e f ( x ) dx e

Ex.: Evaluate the following integrals

I   e x x 2 dx
3
1. .
Sol'n.:

ex
2. I   x dx .
e 8
Sol'n.:

1
3. I   e x  1dx .
Sol'n.:

5
 

 e  1 sec2 x dx .
4

4. I 
tan x

Sol'n.:

Ex.: Solve the initial value problem

dy
 e x sin(e x  2) , y (ln 2)  0
dx .
Sol'n.:

6
General Exponential Functions " a x "

Def 'n.: For any numbers a  0

a x  e x ln a , x 
when a  e , the definition gives a x  e x ln a  e x ln e  e x

For example: 25  e5ln 2

 4  e4ln 
Properties of a x
For a  0 , and any x 1 & x 2
1. a x 1 a x 2  a x 1 x 2
a x1
x2
 a x1  x2
2. a
1
a  x1  x1
3. a
   
x2 x1

4.
a x1
 a x2
 a x1 x2
.

The Derivative of a
u

We know that : a x  e x ln a , a  0

d x d
 a  e x ln a
e x ln a
ln a  a x ln a
dx dx

 In general : d d u du
a f (x )
a f (x )
f (x )ln a & a  a u ln a
dx dx dx

7
 dy
Ex.: Find if
dx
x2 4
1. y7
Sol'n.:

2. y6 sin 2 x
ln 6
Sol'n.:

y   x 2  1  10x
10 2
1
3.
Sol'n.:

How to find the derivative ?

of

 f ( x)   f ( x) 
a g ( x)
f (x )
a

8
 dy
Ex.: Find if
dx
1. y  xx .

Sol'n.1: Sol'n.2:
Let y  xx Let y  xx
ln y  ln x x  x ln x e ln x x
 e x ln x
1 dy 1
 x  ln x
y dx x dy  1 
 e x ln x  x  ln x 
dy dx  x 
 y 1  ln x 
dx  x x 1  ln x 
dy
 x x 1  ln x 
dx

2. y  xsin x
Sol'n.:

3. y   ln x 
ln x

Sol'n.:

9
 The Integral of a
x

d x ax
we Know that : a  a x ln a 
  a dx  ln a  c
x

dx

In general a f (x ) au
:
a f (x ) dx  c  a du  ln a  c
f (x ) u
&
ln a

Ex.: Evaluate the following integrals

1. I    dx .
x

Sol'n.:

10
 2. I   x  dx .
Sol'n.:

3. I  
e
dx
Sol'n.:


2
4. I  dx .
x
Sol'n.:

2
2x x
5. I 
1 2 x2
dx

Sol'n.:

11
 Graph of a x
we see that :
d x
a  a x ln a
dx

+ ive if ln a  0  a  1 - ive if ln a  0  0  a  1

ax is an increasing function if a 1 ax is an decreasing function if 0  a  1

d2 x
Also, 2
a  a x ln 2 a  0 , x
dx

a x is concave up

0  a 1 a 1

a 1

Ex.: Answer the following questions

1. D (a )  2. R (a ) 
x x

 ; a 1  ; a 1
3. xlim ax   4. xlim ax  

 ;0  a  1 
 ;0  a  1

12
 General Logarithm Functions log a x

Def 'n.: For any positive number a  1

Graph of log a x

If a  1: If 0  a  1 :

Ex.: Answer the following questions

1. D (log a x )  2. R (log a x ) 
 ; a 1  ; a 1
3. xlim log a x   4. xlim log a x  

 ;0  a  1 0 
 ;0  a  1

13
 Properties of log a x
For any numbers x1  0 & x2  0
1  log a  x 1 x 2   loga x 1  loga x 2
x 
2  log  1   loga x 1  loga x 2
a 2 
x
3  log a  x 1   r loga x 1
r

Ex.: Simplify the following

1. log 416 
1
2. log   
39

3. 2log 4 x 

Ex.: Solve for x

1. 32 x1  3x1  3x4  81  0 .
Sol'n.:

14
 2. log 2 (x  1)  log 2 (x  1)  log 2 (5x  5)
Sol'n.:

2log 4 x 1
3. log e e  4  log 10100
x
Sol'n.:

The Derivative of log a x

ln x
We know that : log a x 
ln a
d d  ln x  1
 log a x   
dx dx  ln a  x ln a

f (x )
 In general : log a f (x ) 
f (x ) ln a

15
 dy
Ex.: Find if
dx
1. y  log 3x  7
3

Sol'n.:

 x 1
ln 2

2. y  log  
2  x 1 

Sol'n.:

3. 
y  ln log  x 2  9  
Sol'n.:

16
 Integrals Involving log a x

Ex.: Evaluate the following integrals

10
log(10x )
1. I   dx .
1 x
10

Sol'n.:

  x  2  log
1
I  dx
 2
2.
x
2
8

Sol'n.:

17
Sec.:(7.5): Indeterminate Forms and L'Hopital's Rule

Indeterminate Forms

0 
,
0    0 1 ,00 , 0

Case 1 : Indeterminate Quotient

1
Ex.: Evaluate the following limits
1 x 1
1. lim 
x 0 x
Sol'n.:

3x  sin x
2. lim 
x 0 x3
Sol'n.:

1  cos x
3. lim 
x 0 x  x2
Sol'n.:

2
 ex
4. lim 2 
x  x

Sol'n.:

9x  1
5. lim 
x  x 1
Sol'n.:

Case 2: Indeterminate Product

If lim f ( x).g  x     0 , then do the following
xa

f ( x) 0   g ( x) 0
lim 
1. xa  1  0   
or lim   
  x a  1  0
 g ( x)   f ( x) 
   
2. Use L'Hopital's rule.

3
Ex.: Find the following limits
1. lim x cot x 
x0
Sol'n.:

2. lim sin x.ln x 

x0
Sol'n.:

Case 3: Indeterminate Difference

If lim f ( x)  g  x      , then we can handled this limit by
xa
0 
using algebra to convert the direct substitution to , .
0 

4
Ex.:Evaluate the following limits
1 1 
1. lim   
x 0  x sin x 
Sol'n.:

2. lim  ln(2 x)  ln( x  1)  

x

Sol'n.:

 1x 
3. x 
lim xe  x 
 
Sol'n.:

5
Case 4: Indeterminate Powers
 1
 0
 f (x )    0
g (x )
If lim
x a
 0

then do the following :
y  lim  f ( x) 
g ( x)
1. Let
xa

ln for both sides : ln y  ln lim  f ( x) 

g ( x)
2. Take
xa

 limln  f ( x) 
g ( x)

x a

 lim g ( x).ln f ( x)
x a

L
lim  f ( x)   eL .
g ( x)
3.
xa

Ex.: Evaluate the following limits

1
1. lim 1  x   x
x 0

Sol'n.:

6
 1
2. lim  ln x  
x
x 

Sol'n.:

3. lim  sin x  
sin x

x0

Sol'n.:

7
Sec. ( 7.6) : Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The six basic trigonometric function are not one – to – one but we can
restrict their domains to intervals on which they are one – to – one .
1
Def 'n.: The inverse sine function – denoted by sin x or arcsin x -
is defined as follows :
   
x   1,1: y  sin 1 x 
if and only if
 x  sin y , y   , 
 2 2

Notes:

 sin( x)   sin x ; odd fun. 1 1

 sin ( x)   sin x ; odd fun.
  
 1
1
 sin   sin (1) 
2 2
1
   sin (sin x)  x , x  D(sin x)
 sin     1 1 1
 2  sin(sin x)  x , x  D(sin x)

1
Def 'n.: The inverse cosine function – denoted by cos x or arccos x -
is defined as follows :

x   1,1: y  cos1 x 

if and only if
 x  cos y , y  0,  

1
 1
Def 'n.: The inverse tangent function – denoted by tan x or arc tan x
is defined as follows :
   
x   ,   : y  tan 1 x 
if and only if
 x  tan y , y   , 
 2 2

Notes:

 tan( x)   tan x ; odd fun.  tan 1 ( x)   tan 1 x

 ta n  0   0 1 
 lim tan x 
 lim tan x   x  2

x 1
2  ta n (ta n x)  x , x  D(ta n x)
  1 1
 ta n(ta n x)  x , x  D(ta n x)
 x , are vertical asymptote
2 2

2
Def 'n.: The inverse cotangent function –denoted by cot 1 x or arc cot x -
is defined as follows :
x   ,   : y  cot 1 x 
if and only if
 x  cot y , y   0,  

Def 'n.: The inverse secant function – denoted by sec1 x or arc sec x -
is defined as follows :
 
 x 1: y  sec1 x 
if and only if
 x  sec y , y   0,     
2

Notes:

 sec( x)  sec x ; even fun.  sec (1)  0 & sec (1)  

1 1

 sec  0   1 1 
 lim sec x 
x   2
 lim sec x   , lim sec x   1
 sec (sec x)  x , x  D(sec x)
 
x x
1 1
 sec(sec x)  x , x  D(sec x)
2 2

3
 1
Def 'n.: The inverse cosecant function – denoted by csc x or arc csc x -
is defined as follows :
   
 x 1: y  csc1 x 
if and only if
 x  csc y , y   ,   0
 2 2

Identities of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Type I Type II Type III

 1
sin 1 x  cos 1 x  sec 1 x  cos 1  
2 x 

ta n 1 x  cot 1 x  1
2 csc 1 x  sin 1   cos1 x  cos1 ( x)  
x 

sec 1 x  csc 1 x  1
2 cot 1 x  tan 1  
x 

4
Ex.: Find the value of y for the following
1  1 
1. y  sin     y 
sol'n.

 2
1
 3
2. y  cos   
sol'n.
 y 
 2 
1  1 
3. y  tan    y 
sol'n.

 3

Ex.: Find the exact value of

 
1. sin 1  sin  
 9

 1
2. tan tan (10)  

1   
3. sec  sec( ) 
 6 

 1 5 
4. sin  sin ( ) 
 2 

5
Ex.: Find the value of
 1
1. tan sec (1)  
Sol'n.:

 1 1 1 
2. cot  sin ( )  cos 1 ( )  
 2 2 
Sol'n.:

 1 3 
3. sin  2sin ( )  
 4 
Sol'n.:

6
 dy
Ex.: Find if
dx

1
1. y  sin ( x )
2

Sol'n.:

1
2. y  tan x2  1 .
Sol'n.:

3. y  cos x   cos x   cos x

1 1
1

Sol'n.:

7
 3
1
4. y  csc   .
 x

Ex.: Find an equation for the line tangent to the graph of y  cot 1 x at
x  1.
Sol'n.:

8
Ex.: Evaluate the following integrals
1
1
1. I   dx
0
1  x 2

Sol'n.:

2
1
2. I  x
2 x 1 2
dx .
3

Sol'n.:

e2 x
3. I   1 e 4x
dx .

Sol'n.:

9
 x2
4. I   dx .
6  x6
Sol'n.:

1
5. I   dx .
4 x2  4 x  2
Sol'n.:

1
6. I   dx .
4 x  x2
Sol'n.:

1
7. I   dx HW.
(1  x 2 ) tan 1 ( x) .

10
Sec.(7.7) : Hyperbolic Functions
The hyperbolic functions are formed by taking combinations of the two
exponential functions e x and e x .
ex ex
That is: e  
x

2 2
e x e x e x e x
   
2 2 2 2
 e x e x   e x e x 
    
 2 2  2 2 
 e x  e x   e x  e x 
  
 2   2 
= hyperbolic cosine of x + hyperbolic sine of x

Definitions of the Hyperbolic Functions

Ex.:
Sol'n.:

1
 Identities for Hyperbolic Functions

1  tanh 2 x  sec h 2 x
coth 2 x 1  csc h 2 x

cosh 2x  1
sinh 2 x 
2

Ex.:

Sol'n.:

Derivatives of the Hyperbolic Functions

d d
sinh x  cosh x cosh x  sinh x
dx dx
d d
tanh x  sech 2 x coth x   csch 2 x
dx dx
d d
sech x   sech x tanh x csch x   csch x coth x
dx dx

2
 dy
Ex.: Find if
dx
1. y  ln  sinh5x 
Sol'n.:

 
10
2. y  cosh x  sinh x
2 2

Sol'n.:

3. y  tan
1
 coth x 

Integral formulas of Hyperbolic Functions

 cosh x dx  sinh x  c  sinh x dx  cosh x  c

 x dx  tanh x  c  x dx   coth x  c
2 2
sech csch

 sech x tanh x dx  sech x  c  csch x coth x dx  csch x  c

Ex.: Evaluate the following integrals

1. I   cosh x csch 2 x dx .

3
 x
2. I   sinh 2 ( ) dx .
2

3. I   e x cosh x dx .

4. I   sech x dx .

2
cosh(ln x)
5. I  dx
1
x

4
Graphs of the Hyperbolic Functions

5
CHAPTER
EIGHT

TECHNIQUES
OF
INTEGRATION

1
Basic Integration Formulas

2
Sec.(8.1) : Integration by Parts
We know that :
 f ( x) g ( x) dx   f ( x) dx .  g ( x) dx
and

Ex.: Evaluate the following integrals

1. I   x sin x dx
2

3
 
2. I  ( x  3) e dx
2x


3. I  e cos x dx
x

4
 
4. I  ln x dx .


1
5. I  tan x dx .

Tabular Integration

5
Ex.: Evaluate the following integrals


x 1
1. I  x e
2
dx


2. I  e cos x dx
x

Sol'n.:

6
 
3. I  sin x sin(3x) dx
Sol'n.:

cos n1 x sin x ( n  1)

Ex.: Show that  cos x dx    cos n2 x dx
n

n n

7
Sec.(8.2): Trigonometric Integrals
In this section we use trigonometric identities to integrate certain
combinations of trigonometric functions.

1
Ex.: Evaluate the following integrals
1. I   cos2 x sin 3 x dx


2. I  cos x dx
5

2
 
3. I  sin x cos x dx
2 4

3
 Products of Powers of Tangent and Secant

I   secn x tan m x dx

Ex.: Evaluate the following integrals

1. I   sec x tan x dx
4 6

Sol'n.:

4
 
2. I  tan x sec x dx
5 7

Sol'n.:

Ex.: Evaluate the following integrals

1. I   tan x dx
4

5
2. I   sec3 x dx

6
7
Sec.(8.3): Trigonometric Substitutions
Three Basic Substitutions:

1
 1  x
Ex.: Show that  a2  x2
dx  sin 1    c .
a

x 2 dx
Ex.: Evaluate I   9x 2
Sol'n.:

2
 
x dx
Ex.: Evaluate I 
3  2 x  x2
Sol'n.:

e
1
Ex.: Evaluate I  dx
x
4e 2x

Sol'n.:

3
 
1 2
Ex.: Evaluate I  dx ; x 
25x 2  4 5

Ex.: Solve the initial value problem

dy
x  x 2  4 ; x  2 , y (2)  0
dx
Sol'n.:

4
 x 1
Ex.: Evaluate I   x 2
 9
2
dx

Sol'n.:

5
 Sec.(8.4): Integration of Rational Functions by
Partial Fractions
Recall that :
f ( x)  f ( x) dx
 g ( x) dx 
 g ( x) dx
This section shows how to express a rational function as a sum of
simpler fractions, called partial fractions.


f (x )
How to evaluate dx
g (x )
1. If f ( x) and g ( x ) are polynomials and the degree of f ( x) is not less
than the degree of g ( x ) , then long division is appropriate.
2. If f ( x) and g ( x ) are polynomials and the degree of f ( x) is less
than the degree of g ( x ) , then it follows that :

Case I:
If the denominator g ( x) is a product of n distinct linear factors
This means that we can write: g ( x)  ( x  r1)( x  r2 )...( x  rn )
f ( x) A A A
then,  1  2  ...  n
g ( x) x  r1 x  r2 x  rn
Case II:
If the denominator g ( x) is a product of linear factors, some of which
are repeated, This means that we can write: g ( x)  ( x  r1 )
n

f ( x) A1 A2 An
then,    ...  n .
g ( x)  x  r1 1  x  r1 2  x  r1 
Case III:
If the denominator g ( x) contains a repeated irreducible quadratic
factors, This means that we can write : g ( x)  (a x 2  b x  c ) m
f ( x) A1 x  B1 A2 x  B2 Am x  Bm
then,    ...  .
g ( x) (a x  b x  c) (a x  b x  c )
2 1 2 2
(a x 2  b x  c ) m

1
 Ex.: Write out the form of the partial fractions decomposition of the
following functions.
2x
1. 
3 x 2  10 x  3

x2
2. 
 x  1
3

x2  2 x  1
3. 
x3  x 2

x2  x  6
4. 
x3  3x

2
 x 2  4x  1
Ex.: Evaluate the integral I   dx
(x  1)(x  1)(x  3)

x 4
Ex.: Evaluate the integral I   dx
x 3  3x 2  10x

3
 2x  3
Ex.: Evaluate the integral I   dx
x  2x  1
2

Sol'n.:

4
 5 x 3 3 x 2  7 x  3
Ex.: Evaluate I
  x2  1
2
dx

Sol'n.:

5
 
1
Ex.: Evaluate I dx
x  2x  2
2

Sol'n.:

x2  1
Ex.: Evaluate I   x3  3x
dx

Sol'n.:

6
 2x  4
Ex.: Evaluate the integral I   dx
(x 2  1)(x  1) 2

7
8
Sec.:8.7 Improper Integrals
Recall that : The area under the curve y  f ( x) over  a, b is the integral
b

from x  a to x  b is: A   f ( x) dx
a

Ex.: Evaluate I  
2
4  x 2 dx

Sol'n.:
Ex.: Is the area under the curve y  e from x  0 to x   finite ,
2 x

If so ,What is it ?
Sol'n.:
 ln x
Ex.: Is the area under the curve y  from x  1 to x   finite ,
x2
If so ,What is it ?
Sol'n.:


x
Ex.: Evaluate the integral I   1  x 2 dx
Sol'n.:
 
1
Ex.: Evaluate the integral I    1  x 2 dx
 c 
1 1 1
Sol'n.: I   dx   dx   dx

1  x 2

1  x 2
c
1  x 2

0 
1 1
  dx   dx ; c : any real number

1  x 2
0
1  x 2

Now,

and

Thus ,

Converges Diverges
 1
1
Ex.: Evaluate the integral I   dx
0 1 x 2

Sol'n.:
 3
1
Ex.: Evaluate the integral I   2
dx
0 x  1 3

Sol'n.:


Ex.: Evaluate the integral I   sec x dx
0

Sol'n.:
 Tests for Convergence and Divergence

Ex.: Test the following integrals for convergence



1. I   e dx
x
2

Sol'n.:
 
sin 2 x
2. I   2 dx
1
x


1
3. I   dx
0 x  sin x
 
2  e x
4. I   dx
1
x
Ex.: Test the following integrals for convergence

1
1. I   dx
1
x 1
3

Sol'n.:


1
2. I   dx
2 x 12
 
1
3. I   dx
1 e x
x


x
4. I   dx
3 x 1
4
Sec.:(10.1) Infinite Sequences
Def’n.: An infinite sequence of numbers is a function whose
domain is the set of integers greater than or equal to some
integer n0 (usually n 0  1 ).
The symbol of the sequence written as :
ann 1  a1, a2 ,....., an ,.....


The numbers a1, a2 , a3 ,...........are the terms of the sequence.

Ex.: Find the 1st – five terms of the sequences


 (1) n 
1.   
 n n 1

 (1) n1 (n  1) 
2.   
 n n 1

 (n  1)!
3.  n  
 2 n 1

Note: an : N   IR
Ex.: Find a formula for the nth  term of the following

1. 1, 1,1, 1,1,....

2. 2,0,2,0,2,0,.....

3. 1,5,9,13,17,....
 Graphing Sequences
Sequences can be represented as points in the plane where the
horizontal axis n is the index number of the term and the vertical
axis an is its value.

Ex.: Graph the following sequences


 (1) n 
1.  
 n n 1

2. (1) 
n 
n 1
 Convergence and Divergence
Is an n 1 converges ?


(exists) does not exists

converges to diverges

How to find the limits ?

Ex.: Test the following sequences for convergence

 4  3n5 
1.  5 
 n  9 n 1


 sin 2 n 
2.  n 
 2 n 1
 
 3n 
3.  
10n n 1



 2n  1  
2

4.   
 n  2  
 n  2

 3n 

n 2
5.
n 1
 


3n
1   
6. 1   

 5n   n 1

sinh(ln n)n 1

7.



 n  1  
n

8.   
 n  1  
 n 1
Sec.:(10.2) Infinite Series
Def'n.: An infinite series is the sum of an infinite sequence of numbers

a1  a2  .....  an  ....   an
n 1

The numbers a1, a2 , a3 ,........... are the terms of the series.

Def'n.: Geometric series are series of the form


a  a r  a r  .....  a r
2 n 1
 ....   a r n1
n 1

in which a and r are fixed real numbers and a  0 .

converges to Diverges

Reindexing

Note that the series ar
n 1
n 1
 a  a r  a r 2  ar 3  .....


Can be written as : a r
n 0
n
 a  a r  a r 2  a r 3  ....

Or a r
n 3
n 3
 a  a r  a r 2  a r 3  ....

Or ar
n  1
n 1
 a  a r  a r 2  a r 3  ....
Ex.: Determine whether the series is convergent or divergent ? If it
convergent ? find its sum.
 n
1
1.   
n  1 2 

Sol'n.:

 1 
 n

2.   
n  0 3 

Sol'n.:


3
  1
n 1
3.
n 2 2n
Sol'n.:
 
cos(n )
4. 
n 1 5n
Sol'n.:


5. 2
n 1
2n
31n

Sol'n.:

Ex.: Express the repeating decimal 0.4 as the ratio of two integers .
Sol'n.:
 The n th  Term Test for Divergence

If

Does not exists

The test is fail

Diverges

Ex.: Test the following series for convergence


n
1.  2n  5
n 1

Sol'n.:
 
2. n
n 1
2

Sol'n.:

  1
n
3.
n 1

Sol'n.:

 n
 1
4.  1  
n 1  n
Sol'n.:
Notes:

Adding or Deleting Terms

 
1. a
n 1
n converges if and only if a
n k
n converges
 
2. a
n 1
n diverges if and only if a
n k
n diverges
Sec.:(10.3) Integral Test
In this section we study series with nonnegative terms

The Integral Test for Convergence and Divergence


Does the series a
nN
n Converge ?

Is
Yes No
Stop
1. Let
2. If for all

Continuous Positive Decreasing

3. and if

Diverges Converges

Then,

Diverges Converges
Ex.: Which of the following series converge , and which diverge ?


2n
1.  n
n 1 3

Sol'n.:
 
8tan 1 n
2. 
n 1 1  n
2

Sol'n.:
 
1
3.  n ln n
n 2

Sol'n.:


4.  sech n
n 1

Sol'n.:
For Example :

1
1.  0.2
n 1 n


3
2. n
n 1 n
Sec.:(10.4) Comparison Tests
In this section we study series with nonnegative terms and the idea in
the comparison tests is to compare a given series with a series that is
known to be convergent or divergent.
The Direct Comparison Test for Convergence and Divergence

Does the series a
nN
n Converge ?

Ex.: Which of the following series converge , and which diverge ?


sin 2 n
1.  2
n 1 n  1

Sol’ n.:
  n
 n 
2.   
n 1  1  3n 

Sol’ n.:


1
3.  ln (ln n)
n 3

Sol’ n.:
 
tan 1 n
4.  1.2
n 1 n

Sol’ n.:
Sec.:(10.5) The Ratio Test
In this section we study series with nonnegative terms.
The Ratio Test for Convergence and Divergence

Does the series a
nN
n Converge ?

Theorem
Let be a series with nonnegative terms, and suppose that

If
or infinite

Then
converges diverges

The test is fail

Ex.: Investigate the convergence of the following series.


2n  5
1.  n
n 1 3
Sol’ n.:
 
n2
2.  n
n 1 e

Sol’ n.:
an1 (n  1) 2 e n
lim  lim n1  2
n a n  e n
n

(n  1)2 en 1  n 1
2

 lim n 1  2  1 lim  
n e e n e n  n 

 n 1 n 1
2 2
1 1
 1 lim    1  lim 
e n  n  e  n n 
1 1
 1
 (1) 2  1  1
e e

n2
So, by ratio test  n converges
n 1 e


 2n  1!
3. 
n 1 n!

an1 (2( n  1)  1)! n!

Sol’ n.: lim  lim 
n a
n
n  (n  1)! (2n  1)!

(2 n  3)! n!
 lim 
n  ( n  1)! (2 n 1)!

(2n  3)(2n  2)(2n  1)! n!

 lim 
n  (n  1)n ! (2n  1)!

 lim 2(2n  3)  
n

(2n  1)!
So, by ratio test  n 1 n!
diverges
 
(2  n )!
4. 
n  2 n ! ln n

a (2  (n  1))! n! ln n
Sol’ n.: lim n1  lim 
n a n   ( n  1)! ln( n  1) ( n  2)!
n

( n  3)! n! ln n
 lim 
n   ( n  1) n ! ln( n  1) ( n  2)!

(n  3)(n  2)! ln n
 lim 
n   ( n  1) ln( n  1) n(n  2)!

ln n (n  3)
 lim 
n   ln( n  1) n(n  1)

ln n (n  3)
 lim  lim
n   ln( n  1) n   n ( n  1)

n 1 1

L'H.
  lim  lim  1  (0)  0  1
n  n n  2n  1


(2  n)!
So, by the ratio test  n! ln n
n 2
converges
Sec.(10.6): Alternating Series
Def 'n.: A series in which the terms are alternately positive or negative
is an alternating series.

Here are four examples:


(1)n 1 1 1 1
1.   1      " Alternating harmonic series "
n 1 n 2 3 4

(1)n 4 1 1 1
2.   2  1     
n 1 2n 2 4 8

3.  (1)
n 1
n 1
n  1  2  3  4  


cos(n ) 1 1 1 1
4. 
n 1 2n  1
      
3 5 7 9

The Alternating series Test for Convergence



Does the series a

n N
n Converge ?

Theorem:
The series

converges if all three of the following conditions are satisfied

1. The are all positive.
2. for all .
3. .
Ex.: Investigate the convergence of the following series.

(1) n1
1. 
n 1 n
Sol’n.:


(1)n 4
2. 
n 1 2n
Sol’n.:

.
 
3.  (1)
n 1
n 1
n

Sol’n.:


cos(n )
4.  n 1 2n  1

1
Sol’n.: Let un 
2n  1
(i) un ' s  0 , n  1
1 2
(ii ) Let f ( x)   f ( x) 
 0
2x  1 (2 x  1) 2


 f ( x) is decreasing

So, un  un1 , n  1
1
(iii ) lim un  lim 0
n  n   2n  1


(1) n
by AST, 
n 1 2n  1
converges.
Note: The Alternating p - series

If

converges absolutely converges conditionally