Elementary Mathematics Oracle Institute, F-32, Exchange Road Kachi Chawani Jammu

FUNCTION of f(x) as x approaches ‘a’ and is written

as Lt f (a ) .
x→ a
Def. Let X ad Y be two non-empty sets, Def. Let f be a real function then as x
then a function ‘f’ from X to Y is a ‘rule’ or approaches very close to ‘a’ the function
formula that associates to each element x ∈ f(x) will approaches a limiting value ‘l’
X a unique element y ∈ Y. It is written as such that
f : X → Y such that f : x → y Lt f (x) = l
or x →f
y or f(x) = y x→ a

In the function f : X → Y, the unique value Here l is called limit of f(x) as x →

‘y’ to which x is associated is called the f- a.
image of x and ‘x’∈ X is called the pre- Thus f(x) → l as x → a
image of ‘y’ under f.
The set X is called the Domain of ‘f’ ALGEBRA OF LIMITS
and is denoted by D f . Thus D f = X. The set
‘Y’ is called the co-domain of the function (i) Lt [ f ( x) + g ( x)] = Lt f ( x) + Lt g ( x)
x→a x→a x→a
f. The set of all those elements which are
(ii) Lt f ( x) ⋅ g ( x) = Lt f ( x) ⋅ Lt g ( x)
associated uniquely to the elements of X is x→a x→a x→a
called the range of f and is denoted by R f . f ( x) xLt f ( x)
Thus (iii) Lt = →a
x→a g ( x) Lt g ( x)
R f = {y = f(x) : x ∈ X}. It is the x→a
subset of co-domain Y. Here x ∈ X is called (iv) Lt (kf ( x) = k Lt f ( x), k being a constant.
x→a x→a
the independent variable and y ∈ Y is
called the dependent variable.
Note : Functions whose domain and range METHODS TO EVALUATE Lt f ( x )
x→ a
are subsets of real numbers are called real
valued functions. Case-I When f(a) is not indeterminate,
Lt f ( x) = f (a )
EXAMPLES OF REAL FUNCTIONS x→a

x − 2x + 4 1 − 2 + 4 3
2
Ex. 1 Lt = =
(i) f(x) = x2 is a function defined over the x →1 x +1 1+1 2
set x ∈ R. Its range is also a set of real, i.e. 0
Rf = R Case-II When f(a) is of form, cancel the
0
(ii) A sine function is defined by f(x) = sin
factor ( x − a ) (n > 0 ) from the Num. and
n
x, whose domain is the set of all real (R)
and the range is the closed interval [−1, 1] 0
Deno. to make it free from form.
i.e. −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1. 0
(iii) f(x) = x is an identity function with x, x2 − 4 0 
f(x) ∈ R.
Ex. 2 Lt 2  form 
x→2 x − 3x + 2
0 
Since x → 2 i.e., x ≠ 2 or (x − 2) ≠ 0
LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Dividing Num. and Deno. by (x − 2), we
get
Consider a function given by
x2 − 4 x+2
x2 − a2 Lt 2 = Lt
f ( x) = x→2 x − 3x + 2 x→2 x − 1
x−a 2+2
a2 − a2 0 = = 4 (Putting x = 2, we get)
When x = a, f (a ) = = , which is 2 −1
a−a 0 ∞
meaningless or indeterminate as f(a) is not Case-III When f(x) is of form as x → ∞,
∞
defined, finite and real number at x = a. If divide Num. and Deno. by x n , where ‘n’ is
we wish to find its value, when x is very the highest degree of polynomials in the
close to ‘a’, we will lead to an idea of limit

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Num. and the Deno., and use as x → ∞, sin 2x
(iii) Evaluate Lt [Ans. 2]
1 1 x→0 x
, etc. all approach to 0.
x x2 x −2
2 n

Ex. (iv) If Lt = 80, find n. [Ans. 5]

x→2 x − 2
n (n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + − − − − − − +n 2 ***************
3 Lt 2
= Lt
n →∞ n n → ∞ n2
 n (n + 1)  DIFFERENTIATION
1 + 2 + 3 + − − − − − − + n = 2 

n +1 1 1 Def. Let ‘a’ be a point in the domain of the
= Lt = Lt 1 +  real function f(x), then Derivative or
n →∞ 2n n →∞ 2
 n Differential Coefficient of f(x) at x = a,
  denoted by f ′(a ) and is defined as :
= (1 + 0 )
1 1
 As n → ∞, → 0 
2  n  f ( x) − f (a)
f ′(a) = Lt ---- (i)
=
1 x→a x−a
2 provided the limit exists and ‘x’ belongs to
1+ x −1 the small interval around ‘a’.
Ex. 4 Find Lt 3 The derivative of Differential
x →0 1 + x − 1
Coefficient of any function f(x) with
respect to x, at x = a ∈ D f is the
Sol. Put 1 + x = y 6 (6 is the L.C.M of 2 and
instantaneous rate of change of f(x) at x =
3)
a.
As x → 0, y2 → 1 or y → 1
1+ x −1 y3 −1 OTHER FORMS OF DEFINITION
∴ Lt 3 = Lt 2
x →0 1 + x − 1 y →1 y − 1

= Lt
( )
( y − 1) y 2 + y + 1 (i) Let x = a + h, As x → a, h → 0, from (i),
we have
y →1 ( y − 1)( y + 1) f ( a + h) − f ( a )
Since, y → 1 ⇒ y − 1 ≠ 0, dividing f ′(a) = Lt ---- (ii)
h →0 h
by (y − 1), the Num. and Deno. we get provided the limit exists.
= Lt
( )
y2 + y +1 1+1+1 3
= =
y →1 ( y − 1) 1+1 2 (ii) If x is any general point belongs to D f,
then replacing ‘a’ by ‘x’, we have from (ii),
TWO IMPORTANT LIMITS f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f ′( x) = Lt ---- (iii)
h →0 h
xn − an
(i) Lt = na n −1 (iii) Denoting the small arbitrary change in
x→a x − a

sin θ x by ∆x we have from (iii)

(ii) Lt = 1, when ‘θ’ is measured in f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x)
θ→0 θ f ′( x) = Lt ---- (iv)
radian.
∆x → 0 ∆x

* TRY YOURSELF (iv) If ‘y’ is a function of x i.e. y = f(x) and

∆y denote the change in ‘y’ corresponding
x2 − 1
(i) Evaluate Lt [Ans. −2] to small arbitrary change ∆x in x, then
x→ − 1 x + 1
given
( x + 2 ) 5 / 3 − (a + 2 ) 5 / 3 y = f ( x) ⇒ y + ∆y = f ( x + ∆x)
(ii) Evaluate Lt
x→a x−a ∴ from (iv), it follows,
[Ans. 5/3(a+2)2/3 ] ( y + ∆y ) − y ∆y
f ′( x) = Lt = Lt ---- (v)
∆x →0 ∆x ∆x →0 ∆x

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provided the limit exists. Step(V) Take limits when ∆ x → 0, we get

∆y dy
The Lt when exists is denoted ,
∆x →0 ∆x
dx
" dy" f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x )
by the symbol , which is known and or directly f ′( x) = lt .
dx ∆x → 0 ∆x
read as derivative of ‘y’ w.r.t. ‘x’.
Ex. 1 Find by ab-inito, the derivative of
Note : (i) In
dy
, y is a dependent variable, (i) x n (ii) (ax + b) n (iii) e ax (iv) sin x (v)
dx cos x
while x is an independent variable.
d Sol. (i) Let y = xn . ----- (i)
(ii) is an operator implying “derivative
dx Changing x to x + ∆x and y to y + ∆y, we
w.r.t. x” and may be denoted by ‘D’ get
dy ∴ y + ∆y = (x + ∆x)n ----- (ii)
i.e. = Dy. Subtracting (i) from (ii) we get
dx
 ∆x 
n

∆y = ( x + ∆x ) − x n = x n 1 +
(iii) The process of finding differential
 −x
n n
coefficient or Derivative is called the  x 
Differentiation.
n 
 ∆x 
n

= x 1 +  − 1
PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF  x  
DERIVATIVE OF y = f(x) Expanding by Binomial Theorem,
∆x
The derivative is related to a neglecting higher powers of and
function, in the same way as velocity is x
related to the distance travelled by a retaining upto first two terms, we get
moving particle.  ∆x  
∆y = x n 1 + n ⋅  − 1
 dy 
Geometrically,   = f ′(a ) = slope of  x  
 dx  x = a  ∆x 
= x n n ⋅ 
tangent to the curve y = f(x) at the point x =  x 
a. Divide by ∆x on b/s, we get
∆y x n  ∆x  n
DERIVATIVE BY FIRST PRINCIPLE =  n ⋅  = xn ⋅  
∆x ∆x  x  x
Differentiation found by taking limits after Taking limits as ∆x → 0 on b/s, we have
finding the Incremental Ratio is called dy ∆y n
∴ = Lt = Lt x n   = nx n −1
Differentiation by First Principle or dx ∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0  x 
∆ (delta) method or Definition or Ab-inito.
In order to calculate
dy
, by the
Hence
d n
dx
( )x = nx n −1
dx
above methods proceed as follows : or ( ) 
D x n = nx n −1  D = 
d
 dx 
Step(I) Equate to y, the function whose
derivative is required. Alternately, directly from Eq.
Step(II) Change x to x + ∆ x and y to y + dy
= Lt
(x + ∆x )n − x n , we have
∆ y. dx ∆x→0 ∆x
Step(III) Find ∆ y by subtracting y from y d n ( x + ∆x ) − x n
n

+ ∆ y, and simplify. ( x ) = Lt ,
dx x + ∆x → x ( x + ∆x ) − x
Step(IV) Divide by ∆ x

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this limit exists and is equal to nxn-1 Dividing both sides by ∆x, we have
because of the formula Lt
xn − an
= na n −1
∆y e ax e a∆x − 1
=
( )
x→a x − a ∆x ∆x
stated earlier. Taking Lt on b/s, we get
∆x →0

Sol. (ii) Let y = (ax + b) n

-----(i) Lt
∆y
= Lt
(
e ax e a∆x − 1 )
Changing x to x + ∆x and y to y + ∆y, we ∆x →0 ∆x ∆x →0 ∆x
get dy
= Lt
ax
(
e e a∆x − 1 )
∴ y + ∆y = [a ( x + ∆x) + b] ----- (ii) or
dx ∆x →0 ∆x
Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get  (e a∆x − 1)
∆y = [a ( x + ∆x) + b] − (ax + b) n = ae ax ⋅  Lt 
n

n
a∆x →0 a∆x 
 a∆x  = ae ax ⋅ (1)
= (ax + b) 1 +
n
 − (ax + b) n
 (ax + b)   ex −1 
 n
 = a ⋅ e ax  x →0
 Lt =1
n  a∆x   x 
= (ax + b) 1 +  − 1
 (ax + b)   d ax
Hence (e ) = a ⋅ e ax
dx
Expanding by Binomial Theorem,
a∆x Sol. (iv) Let y = sin x ----- (i)
neglecting higher powers of and Changing x to x + ∆x and y to y + ∆y, we
ax + b
retaining up to first two terms, we get have
y + ∆y = sin( x + ∆x) -----(ii)
 a∆x  
∆y = (ax + b) n 1 + n ⋅  − 1
(ax + b)  
Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get
 ∆y = sin( x + ∆x) − sin x
 a∆x   x + ∆x + x   x + ∆x − x 
= (ax + b)n n ⋅  = 2 cos   ⋅ sin  
 (ax + b)   2   2 
Dividing b/s by ∆x , we get  ( A + B) A − B
∆y (ax + b) n  a∆x   sin A − sin B = 2 cos ⋅ sin 
=  n⋅   2 2 
∆x ∆x  (ax + b)   ∆x  ∆x
or ∆y = 2 cos x +  sin
 a   2  2
= (ax + b) n n ⋅ 
 (ax + b)  Dividing b/s by ∆x, we get
Taking limits as ∆x → 0 on b/s, we have ∆y 2  ∆x  ∆x
= ⋅ cos x +  sin
∆y  a  ∆x ∆x  2  2
Lt = Lt (ax + b) n n ⋅ 
∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x → 0
 (ax + b)  
cos x +
∆x  ∆x
 sin
dy  2  2
or = n ⋅ a (ax + b) n −1 =
dx ∆x
Hence,
d
dx
[ ]
( ax + b ) n = n ⋅ a ( ax + b ) n−1 2
Approaching limit as ∆x → 0 on b/s, we get
 ∆x  ∆x
Sol. (iii) Let y = eax cos x +  sin
----- (i) ∆y  2  2
Changing x to x + ∆x and y to y + ∆y, we Lt = Lt
∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x → 0 ∆x
have
2
∴ y + ∆y = e a ( x + ∆x ) ----- (ii)
∆x 

Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get ∆x   sin 

∆y = e a ( x + ∆x ) − e ax = e ax ⋅ e a∆x − e ax = Lt cos x +  ⋅ Lt  2 
∆x →0
 2  ∆x →0 ∆x 
= e ax ⋅ (e a∆x − 1)  
 2 
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 sin x  ∴ f ( x + ∆x) = c ( c is a constant ∀ x )

= cos x ⋅ 1  xLt = 1, we get 
 →0 x  ⇒ f(x+ ∆x) – f(x) = c – c = 0
= cos x f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) 0
or = =0
∆x ∆x
Hence,
d
(sin x ) = cos x f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x)
dx or Lt = Lt 0 = 0
∆x →0 ∆x ∆x →0

Sol. (v) Let y = cos x ---- (i)

Changing x to x + ∆x and y to y + ∆y, we
Hence,
d
(f ( x)) = d (c ) = 0
dx dx
have
y + ∆y = cos( x + ∆x) ----(ii) (ii)
d
[cf ( x)] = c [f ( x)]
d
dx dx
Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get
∆y = cos( x + ∆x) − cos x e.g .
d
dx
(7 x 2 ) = 7 ( x 2 ) = 7 (2 x) = 14 x
d
dx
 x + ∆x + x   x + ∆x − x 
= − 2 sin   ⋅ sin  
 2   2  DERIVATIVE OF THE PRODUCT OF
THE FUNCTIONS
 ( A + B) A − B
 cos A − cos B = −2 sin ⋅ sin  If y(x) = uv, where u and v are also the
 2 2 
functions of x, then
 ∆x  ∆x
or ∆y = −2 sin  x +  ⋅ sin dy d dv
= (u ⋅ v) = u + v
du
 2  2 dx dx dx dx
Dividing b/s by ∆x, we get or D(uv) = u D(v) + v D(u ) ---- (i)
∆y 2  ∆x  ∆x
= − ⋅ sin  x +  ⋅ sin In other words, derivative of the product of
∆x ∆x  2  2 two functions
 ∆x  ∆x = First function × derivative of 2nd function
sin  x +  ⋅ sin + 2 nd function × derivative of first
2 
=− 
2
∆x function.
2 DERIVATIVE OF RECIPROCAL OF A
Approaching limit as ∆x → 0 on b/s, we get FUNCTION
 ∆x  ∆x 1
sin  x +  ⋅ sin If h(x) ≠ 0 and f(x) = , then
∆y
= Lt − 
2  2 h( x )
Lt
∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x → 0 ∆x − h' ( x )
f ' ( x) = ---- (ii)
2 [h(x )]2
 ∆x 
∆x   sin 
 DERIVATIVE OF QUOTIENT OF TWO
= Lt − sin  x +  ⋅ Lt  2 
∆x →0
 2  ∆x →0 ∆x  FUNCTIONS
  g ( x)
 2  If h(x) ≠ 0 and f(x) = , then
 sin x  h( x )
= − sin x ⋅ 1  Lt = 1, we get  d d
 x →0 x  h( x ) g ( x ) = g ( x ) h( x )
= − sin x f ′( x) = dx dx ---- (iii)
[h( x)] 2

Hence,
d
(cos x ) = − sin x
dx
DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION OF
FUNCTION (CHAIN RULE)
Remark : (i) Derivative of a constant
d
function is zero i.e. (c ) = 0 If y is a function of u given y = f(u) and u is
dx a function of x, defined by u = g(x), then ‘y’
Proof : Let f(x) = c be a constant function is a function of x and

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dy dy du 1 sin x
= ⋅ ---- (iv) = ⋅ = sec x tan x
dx du dx cos x cos x
d
(vi) (2 y 3 / 2 + 4 y 3 / 4 )
Cor. : If y = u n , where ‘u’ is a function of x dy
and ‘n’ is a constant, then d d
d n du = (2 y 3 / 2 ) + (4 y 3 / 4 )
(u ) = nu n −1 ⋅ ---- (v) dy dy
dx dx
d d
= 2 ( y3/ 2 ) + 4 ( y3/ 4 )
*** SOLVED EXAMPLES *** dy dy
Ex.1 Differentiate the following w.r.t. x.  3 3 −1   3 3 −1 
x +1 = 2 y 2  + 4 y 4 
(i) π (ii) x (iii) 2  4 
( x + 2 )2    
 1 
1 1
(iv) (x + 3)(x − 9) (v) sec x = 3y 2 + 3y
−
= 3 y 1 / 2 + 1 / 4 
4
3 3
(vi) 2y + 4y 42  y 
d dy
Sol. (i) (π) = 0 { differential Ex.2If x = at 2 and y = bt 3 , find .
dx dx
coefficient of an isolated constant is zero.} dy dy dt
Sol. = ⋅ [Chain Rule]
1 1 1 dx dt dx
d d 2 1 −1 1 −
(ii) ( x) = (x ) = x 2 = x 2 dy dy / dt
dx dx 2 2 or = ----- (i)
1 1 dx dx / dt
= = . d d d
2x 1/ 2
2 x Now, ( x) = (at 2 ) = a (t 2 ) = 2at
dt dt dt
d  x +1  d d d
(iii)   Again, ( y ) = (bt 3 ) = b (t 3 ) = 3bt 2
dx  ( x + 2) 2  dt dt dt
d d dy 3bt 2
( x + 2) 2 ( x + 1) − ( x + 1) ( x + 2) 2 From equation (i), =
= dx dx dx 2at
( x + 2) 4
dy 3bt
or =
d dt 2a
( x + 2) 2 (1 + 0) − 2( x + 1)( x + 2) ( x + 2)
= dx Ex.3 The equation of motion of a
( x + 2) 4 uniformly accelerated particle is given by
1
( x + 2) 2 − 2( x + 1)( x + 2) S = ut + at 2
= 2
( x + 2) 4
dS  dS 
( x + 2)[ x + 2 − 2 x − 2] −x Calculate (i) (ii)  
= = dt  dt  t =0
( x + 2) 4
( x + 2) 2
d 2S
d (iii)
(iv) [( x + 3)( x − 9)] dt 2
dx
dS d  1 
d  d  Sol. (i) =  ut + at 2 
=  ( x + 3) ( x − 9) + ( x + 3) ( x − 9)  dt dt  2 
 dx   dx 
= (1 + 0)( x − 9) + ( x + 3)(1 − 0) d d 1 
= (ut ) +  at 2 
= (x − 9) + (x + 3) = 2x − 6. dt dt  2 
d d  1  d 1
(v) (sec x) =  = (cos x) −1 = u + a (2t ) = u + at
2
dx dx  cos x  dx
d
=
sin x  dS 
= (−1)(cos x) −1 − 1 (cos x ) (ii)   = u + a (0) = u
dx cos 2 x  dt  t =0

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d 2 S d  dS  d n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3

(iii) =   = (u + at ) (1 + x) n = 1 + nx +
2!
x +
3!
x + ---
dt 2 dt  dt  dt
where n is any number which may be
d d
= (u ) + (at ) = 0 + a = a positive, negative, integer or a fraction.
dt dt Here, 2 ! = 2 × 1, 3 ! = 3 × 2 ×1, --------
*TRY YOURSELF n ! = n(n − 1)(n − 2) …… × 3 × 2 × 1.
1. From the first principle, find the When | x | << 1, then only the first two
derivatives of the following: terms in the expansion are significant. The
1 second and higher terms can be neglected.
(a) tan x (b) x (c) sin 2x (d)
1+ x In this case, the expansions shall reduce to
Answers: the following simplified forms :
 1 1  (1 + x) n = 1 + nx
2
(a ) sec x (b) (c) 2 cos 2 x (d ) − 
(1 + x) 2  (1 + x) −n = 1 − nx
 2 x
(1 − x)n = 1 − nx
2. Differentiate the following w.r.t. the (1 − x) −n = 1 + nx
variable involved:
TWO IMPORTANT DERIVATIVES
(a) x 3/2 (b) u 3 − 5u 2 + 2 + 6 (c) (2 x + 7 )5
7
d x
3u (i) (a ) = a x log a
dx
2x 2 − 1
(d) (2 x + 5)(3 x + 5) (e) Cor. 1 :
d u
(a ) = a u log a ⋅
du
2x + 3 dx dx

 
(
(f) sin  3 x 3 , x > 0 (g) cos 1 − x 2
1
)
2
where u is function of x
Cor. 2 : Put a = e in (i)
Answers:
 3 x 14 
d x
dx
( )
e = e x ⋅ log e = e x
( a ) (b) 3u 2 − 10u − 3 (c)10(2 x + 7) 4 
2 d 1
 3u  (ii) (log a x) = log a e

(d )12 x + 25 (e)
4 x + 12 x + 2
2
(f)
(
cos 3 x )
1/ 3 
(
dx
Cor. 1 Putting a = e
x

 (2 x + 4) 2
x2/3  d 1 1
  (log e x) = ⋅ log e e =
( g ) 4 x(1 − x ) sin(1 − x )
2 2 2
 dx x x
  Cor. 2 (i)
d
(log a u ) = ⋅ log a e ⋅ d (u )
1
dy dx u dx
3. Find , when x = a cos 2 t , y = b sin 2 t
dx
[Ans. −b/a] (ii)
d
(log u ) = 1 ⋅ d (u )
dx u dx
4. The area of a circle of radius r is π r2 .
Prove that the rate of increase of area **************
w.r.t. radius is equal to the circumference
of the circle.
INTEGRATION
5. A particle starts from rest, according to Integration is the inverse process of
t2 t differentiation also called ‘anti-derivative’.
the equation: θ = − + 7 where θ is in
60 4
radian and t is in second. Calculate the Def. A function ‘F’ is called an anti-
angular velocity of the particle after 10 derivative of a function ‘f’ if
second. [Ans. 66.4 rad s −1] d
[F ( x)] = f (x ) and is written as
dx
BINOMIAL THEOREM ∫ f ( x)dx = F ( x)
read as ‘integral of f(x) w.r.t. x is F(x)’
If | x | < 1 i.e. x lies between −1 and +1,
then
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Thus
d
[F ( x)] = f ( x) ⇒ ∫ f ( x) dx = F ( x) 8. ∫ a dx =
x ax
+c
dx log a
.
9. ∫ tan x dx = log(sec x) + c
Since
d
(F ( x ) + c ) = d (F ( x ) ) = f ( x )
dx dx 10. ∫ cot x dx = log(cos ecx) + c
∴ ∫ f ( x) dx = F ( x) + c where ‘c’ is
an arbitrary real constant. F(x) + c is called TWO USEFUL RESULTS
anti-derivative of f(x).
1. ∫ k ⋅ f ( x)dx = k ∫ f ( x)dx, where ‘k’ is a
Remarks: (i) Anti-derivative of ‘f’ is also constant
2. ∫ ( f ( x) + g ( x) )dx = ∫ f ( x)dx + ∫ g ( x)dx
Indefinite Integral or simply integral of ‘f’.

(ii) In ∫ f ( x) dx; f ( x) is called the

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Integrand, the symbol ‘∫ ’ is the integral 10
sign and the process of finding an integral Ex.1 Integrate : (i) 2 − 2 sec 2 x (ii) tan 2 x
x
of ‘f’ is called integration. (iii) 5 x + 6 cos x
2

(iii) Since the constant ‘c’ can assume any

 10 
value, F(x) + c is not definite and for this Sol. (i) ∫  x 2
− 2 sec 2 x dx

reason ∫ f ( x) dx is called Indefinite
10
integral. =∫ 2
dx − 2 ∫ sec 2 x dx
x
The anti-derivatives of standard = 10 ∫ x −2 dx − 2 ∫ sec 2 x dx
functions are given below: ( )
= 10 x −1 − 2 (tan x ) + c
d  x n +1  x n +1 − 10
1.   = x n ⇒ ∫ x n dx = +c = − 2 tan x + c
dx  n + 1  n +1 x
where ‘n’ is any constant, but n ≠ 1
2. When n = −1, x n = x −1 =
1 Sol. (ii) ∫ tan
2
( )
x dx = ∫ sec 2 x − 1 dx
x = ∫ sec 2
x dx − ∫ 1 ⋅ dx
∴ (log | x |) = ⇒ ∫ dx = log | x | +c
d 1 1
= tan x − x + c
dx x x

∫ (5 x + 6 cos x )dx
d
Cor. Since ( x) = 1 ⇒ ∫ 1 ⋅ dx = x + c Sol. (iii) 2
dx
= ∫ 5 x dx + ∫ 6 cos x dx
2
3.
d
(sin x ) = cos x ⇒ ∫ cos x dx = sin x + c
dx
4.
d
(− cos x ) = sin x ⇒ ∫ sin x dx = cos x + c = 5∫ x 2 dx + 6 ∫ cos x dx
dx
5. (e ) = a ⋅ e ax ⇒ a ∫ e ax dx = e ax + c
d ax
 x3 
dx = 5   + 6 (sin x ) + c
 3 
(tan x ) = d  Sinx  = cos x +2 sin x
2 2
d
6.
dx dx  cos x  cos x 5x 3
= + 6 sin x + c
1 3
= = sec 2 x Ex.2 The velocity ‘v’ of a particle as a
cos 2 x
function of time ‘t’ is given by
⇒ ∫ sec x dx = tan x + c
2
v(t) = 2t + 5 ms− 1 .
7. ∫ sec x ⋅ tan xdx = sec x + c Calculate the displacement after 2 second
from rest.
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Sol. We have, v(t) = 2t + 5

dS (t )
d
(F ( x) ) = f ( x),
⇒ = 2t + 5 dx
dt then the integral of f(x) from x = a to x = b,
or dS (t ) = (2t + 5)dt written as
b
Integrating b/s w.r.t. ‘x’, we get
∫ dS (t ) = ∫ (2t + 5)dt ∫ f ( x) dx ,
a
is called the definite

or S (t ) = 2∫ tdt + 5∫ dt integral of f(x) over the interval. a ≤ x ≤ b

and we have
t2 b
= 2 + 5t + c
2 ∫ f ( x) dx = F (b) − F (a) = F ( x) | x =b − F ( x) | x = a
= t 2 + 5t + c
a
---- (i)
= (value of anti-derivative at x = b) –
Applying the initial condition that at t = 0,
(value of anti-derivative at x = a)
S(t) = 0 so that from (i), we have c = 0.
Here ‘a’ is called the lower limit and
Putting for c = 0 in (i), we get
‘b’ is called the upper limit of the definite
S (t ) = t 2 + 5t b

∴S (t ) t =2 s = (2) + 5(2) = 4 + 10 = 14 m
2 integral ∫ f ( x) dx .
a

*TRY YOURSELF PROPERTIES OF DEFINITE

1. Integrate the following: INTEGRAL
 7 2 
(i) 3x2 + 7x  Ans. x + 2 x + c 
3
b a

(ii) Evaluate ∫
1
dx .
(i) ∫
a
f ( x) dx = − ∫ f ( x) dx
b
(2 x + 9)5 / 2 b c b
(ii) ∫ f ( x) dx = ∫ f ( x) dx + ∫ f ( x) dx,
 1  a a c

 Ans. − + c where a < c < b

 3(2 x + 9) 3/ 2
 a a


(iii) Integrate  x +
1 
 w.r.t x.
(iii) ∫ 0
f ( x) dx = ∫ f (a − x) dx
0
 x a
 2
 Ans. 3 x x + 2 x + c 
 (iv) ∫ f ( x) dx = 0
a
a a
 6
(iv) Evaluate ∫  e − x + dx w.r.t x
 x
(v) ∫
−a
f ( x) dx = 2 ∫ f ( x) dx if f(x) is an even
0

[Ans. − e −x
+ 6 log e x + c ] function.
= 0 if f(x) is an odd function.
(v) The acceleration of a particle as a
function of time t is given by
∫( )
4
a(t) = 4t − 2 ms− 2. Ex.1 (i) Evaluate x − 2 x + x 2 dx
Calculate its velocity after 4 second from 0
dv(t )
∫( )
4
rest. {Hint: a (t ) = }
dt Sol. Let I = x − 2 x + x 2 dx
[Ans. 24 ms −1 ] 0

( )
4
= ∫ x 2 − 2 x + x 2 dx
1

IDEA OF DEFINITE INTEGRAL 0

3 4
Let ‘f’ be a continuous function defined on 2 x2 x3
= x2 − 2⋅ + + c , c being constant
a finite integral a ≤ x ≤ b, and ‘F’ be an 3 2 3 0
anti-derivative of f i.e.

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2 3 43  as scalars. Following are the examples of
=  (4) 2 − (4) 2 + + c  − (0 − 0 + 0 + c ) typical scalar quantities:
3 3  Mass, Length, time, volume, speed,
2 64 32 work, power, energy, electric charge,
= ⋅ 8 − 16 + =
3 3 3 electric current, electric potential,
π
2 electric flux, magnetic flux etc. Scalars are
x
∫ sin
2
(ii) Evaluate dx added and multiplied according to simple
0
2 laws of algebra.
π
π
1 − cos x
dx = [x − sin x ] 2
2
1
=∫ VECTORS. The physical quantities having
0
2 2 0 both the magnitude as well as direction are
1  π   π−2 known as vectors. Following are the
=  − 1 − (0 − 0) = examples of typical vector quantities:
2  2   4
Displacement, area, velocity,
3
acceleration, momentum, impulse, force,
dx
∫
(iii) Evaluate electric field strength, electric dipole,
2
x moment, magnetic induction, magnetic
log 3 dipole moment, magnetizing field etc.
= log x |32 = log 3 − log 2 = = log 2 3 Vectors are added and multiplied
log 2
according to the special laws of vector
algebra.
*TRY YOURSELF

2. Evaluate the following definite REPRESENTATION OF A VECTOR

integrals :
4
(i) ∫ t 2 dt
3 A vector is represented by putting an arrow
[Ans. 64/5] 
head over the symbol of the vector. Thus A
0

3 represents a vector. The magnitude of A is
(ii) ∫ (t 2 + 1) dt [Ans. 22/3] 
denoted by either | A | or by A.
2
π
Geometrically
3 , a vector is
(iii) ∫ (sec x ⋅ tan x ) dx [Ans. 1] represented by a
0 directed line
π
segment. The length
4
  π 
∫ tan  Ans.1 − 4 
of the line represents
2
(iv) x dx
0    the magnitude of the vector and the
π direction is represented by the arrowhead
2 as shown if Fig. (i). Here the length of the
(v) ∫ (5 sin x + 2 cos x ) dx
0
[Ans. 7]
line OP is equal to the magnitude of A on


 1   32 
9
(vi) ∫ 
4
x−  dx
x  Ans. 3 
+1
 3 
∫2 ⋅ dx
x
(vii)  Ans. 2 log 2 
−1  
***************************

SCALARS AND VECTORS

SCALARS. The physical quantities having
magnitude only and no direction are called some convenient scale. And the direction of

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 
A is from O to P. Here O is called the tail r = xî + y ĵ + zk̂
of the vector A and P is called the head Displacement of a particle may be defined
 
of A . We can also write : as the change in its position vector. If r1
 
OP = A and r2 are the initial and final position
vectors of a particle, then the displacement
DIFFERENT KIND OF VECTORS of the particle is given by:
  
s = r2 − r1
1. Zero or null vector. A vector whose (iii) Proper vector. A non-zero vector
magnitude is zero is called a null vector or is called a proper vector. Thus a is a
  
zero vector and is denoted by symbol 0 . proper vector, iff a ≠ 0 .
  
Let a = PQ ∴ a=0

iff | a | = 0, (iv) Unit vector. The ratio of the vector
and its magnitude is called the unit vector.
i.e. iff | PQ | = 0 The unit vector is represented by putting a
i.e. iff P and Q coincide. Thus a ‘carat’ or ‘cap’ over the symbol of the

null vector 0 is represented by those vector physical quantity. Thus, the unit

directed segments whose initial and final vector along A is given by
points are the same. 
 A
∴ 0 = AA = BB = PP etc. Â = 
|A|
The null vector has no definite direction.
The unit vector represents direction.
PROPERTIES OF A NULL VECTOR Its magnitude is 1. The unit vector has no
   units. A vector may be written as :
0+0 = 0  
 A = | A | Â
A+0= A The unit vectors along the X, Y, Z

A−0 = A axes are denoted by î , ĵ and k̂ respectively.

A−A =0
  Collinear vectors. Two vectors are said
λ(0) = 0 to be collinear if they are either parallel or
anti-parallel to each other. Thus, if the
EXAMPLES OF NULL OR ZERO VECTOR  
vectors A and B are collinear, then :
(i) The position vector of the origin of the  Â = ± B̂ 
coordinate axis is zero vector But | A | may or may not be equal to | B | .
(ii) If a particle is at rest, then its
displacement over any arbitrary interval
of time is a zero vector.
(iii) When a particle returns to its
starting point then its displacement is a
zero vector.
(iv) The velocity of a stationary particle
is also a zero vector.

2. Position Vector. The vector drawn

from the origin of the co-ordinate axis to
the instantaneous position of a particle is
called the position vector of the particle.
 Equal vectors. Two vectors are said to
(Fig. (ii)). Here r = OP is the position be equal if their direction is the same and
vector of P(x,y,z). The position vector of  
magnitudes are equal. Thus if A = B , then
P(x,y,z) may be written as follows :
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Elements of Plus1Physics
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 
 = B̂ and | A | = | B |
Negative vectors. Two vectors are said
to be the negative vector of each other, if
their magnitudes are equal but directions
are opposite. Thus:
   
A = −B if  = −B̂ and | A | = | B |
Resultant vector. A single vector whose
effect is same as that of two or more
vectors is called resultant vector.
   
Suppose, A, B, C, D, …... are a
number of vectors and their combined
 
effect is same as that of the single vector R .
 | r | = | OP | = x 2 + y 2
Then R is called resultant vector
   
of A, B, C, D, …... That is
     
A + B + C + D + ......... = R
Co-planar vectors. A set of vectors is
said to be co-planar if the directed
segments representing them lie in the same
plane and having common initial point.
Oracle Institute, F-32, Exchange Road Kachi Chawani
there exist scalars x and y, such that
OA = x î [ OA and î are collinear]
OB = yĵ [ OB and ĵ are collinear]
Putting in (i), we have

r = x î + yĵ , where
(i) (x, y) are the cartesian co-ordinates of
the point P.
(ii) x î = OA, yĵ = OB are called rectangular

components or resolved parts r = OP
along x and y axis respectively.

(iii) Length of vector r = x î + yĵ is
Similarly, a vector can have three
rectangular components in space (Fig. (iv)).
If r is a position vector of a point P
relative to O then

OP = r = x î + yĵ + zk̂ , where

COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR
        
If R = A + B + C + D + ......... then A, B, C, D,

etc. are called components of R . Thus
components of a vector are two or more
vectors whose combined effect is same as

that of a single vector R .
A vector can have any number of
components.
(i) (x, y, z) are called co-ordinates of the
RESOLUTION OF A VECTOR ALONG point P referred to co-ordinate system
TWO PERPENDICULAR DIRECTIONS OX, OY, OZ along which î , ĵ, k̂ are unit
IN THE PLANE OF THE VECTOR
vectors respectively.
Let OX and OY be two (ii) The vectors x î , y ĵ and z k̂ are called the
 
perpendicular directions. Let r be any rectangular resolutes of the vector  r .
vector in the plane of two intersecting lines (iii) We can denote the vector r as an
OX and OY. ordered triplets of real numbers (x, y, z)
 
Let OP = r . Draw PA and PB i.e. we can write r = ( x , y, z)
parallel to OY and OX respectively. (iv) The vectors î , ĵ, k̂ are called
∴By parallelogram law of addition of orthonormal unit vectors.
vectors 
(v) The length of the vectors r = x î + yĵ + zk̂
OP = OA + OB ---- (i) 
ˆ is | r | = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
If i and ĵ denote unit vectors in the
direction OX and OY respectively, then

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MAGNITUDE OF RECTANGULAR
COMPONENTS

If vector R = î R x + ĵR y + k̂R z makes
angles α, β and γ with X, Y and Z axes
respectively, then magnitudes of its
rectangular components is given by
R x = R cos α
R y = R cos β
Fig (v) shows two vectors a and b
R z = R cos γ
Here l = α, m = β, n = γ are called represented by the sides OP and PQ of the

direction lines of R . It is found that triangle OPQ, then their resultant R is
l 2 + m2 + n 2 = 1 represented by the third side OQ of the
R Ry triangle OPQ drawn in opposite order. Thus
Also l = α = x , m = β = and n = γ
R R
R
= z
R
Ex. Find the unit vector of 3iˆ + 4 ˆj − kˆ .

Sol. Let A = 3iˆ + 4 ˆj − kˆ
Comparing with Ax iˆ + Ay ˆj + Az kˆ , we get
Ax = 3, Ay = 4 and Az = −1
Also A = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2 R = a+b
or OQ = OP + PQ
or A = 3 2 + 4 2 + (−1) 2
Also in the triangle of vectors OPQ, we
or A = 9 + 16 + 1 = 26 find :

A 3iˆ + 4 ˆj − kˆ a
=
b
=
R
Now, Aˆ = =
A 26 OP PQ OQ
3 ˆ 4 ˆ 1 ˆ
= i+ j− k (ii) PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF
26 26 26
VECTORS
******************* Statement. This law states that
 
ADDITION OF VECTORS “If two vectors a and b are
represented by the two sides of a
  parallelogram drawn from the same point,
Let there be two vectors a and b of
then their resultant is given by the
magnitudes a and b, making an angle θ diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from
between them. (Fig. (i)). the same point”.
Fig. (vi) shows a parallelogram
TRIANGLE LAW OF VECTORS  
OABC. Here OA = a , OC = b and the
  
Statement. This law states that diagonal OB = R = a + b .
“If two vectors are represented by The law of parallelogram of
the two sides of a triangle taken in order, vector addition is equivalent of law of
then their sum is represented by the third triangle of vector addition since in ∆OAB,
side of the triangle taken in the opposite
OB = OA + AB
order”.   
i.e. R =a+b
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and in ∆ OCB, OB = OC + CB b sin θ
   tan β =
i.e. R = b+a a + b cos θ
    
Thus R = a + b = b + a . Thus
(a) Vector addition obeys commutative Maximum and Minimum values of R
law. The resultant of two vectors is maximum,
(b) Vector addition is associative i.e. for when the angle between them is 0°. In such
   a case we find.
any three vectors a , b, c
R max = A + B and β = 0°
(
  
) (  
a+ b+c = a+b +c ) 
The minimum value of R occur when the
(c) Zero vector is additive identity i.e. for  
     angle between A and B is θ = 180°. In such
any vector a , a + 0 = a where 0 is a
null vector. a case R min = | A − B | and β is either 0°
 when A > B or is 180° when A < B.
(d) Additive inverse, i.e. for every vector a ,
 When θ = 90° , we find :
there exists a vector − a such that
   1
a + ( −a ) = 0 R = (A + B ) and β = tan −1
2 2 2 B
A

ANALYTICAL METHOD OF SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS

ADDITION OF TWO VECTORS  
Let us want to find a − b .
     
Fig. (vii) shows two vectors a and b We may write a − b = a + (−b)
making angle θ between their directions Thus we see that the subtraction of

 
with R as their resultant. Draw BM ⊥ OA vectors b from a is equivalent to addition
meeting OA produced at point M.
Now in ∆ AMB,
 
| AM | = | b | cos θ and | BM | = | b | sin θ
 
∴ | OM | = | OA | + | AM | = | a | + | b | cos θ
∴ in rt. ∆ OMB, we have from Pythagoras

 
of vector − b to a i.e.
   
theorem, a − b = a + ( − b)
| OB | 2 = | OM | 2 + | BM | 2 The procedure is graphically represented in
Fig. (viii).
( )
  2   
⇒ R 2 = | a | + | b | cos θ + | b | sin θ 
OP = a , PQ = b, PR = −b
= (a + b cos θ) + b sin θ = a + b 2 + 2ab cos θ    
2 2
∴ OR = R = a + (− b) = a − b
⇒ R = a 2 + b 2 + 2 ab cos θ The vector subtraction is not commutative
       
This gives the magnitude of the resultant i.e. a − b ≠ b − a but a − b = −(b − a )

R. For analytic subtraction, the
  
Also, if R makes an angle β with vector a magnitude of R is given by
then R = a 2 + b 2 + 2 ab cos( π − θ)

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  
Ex.1 Resultant of two vectors a and (iv) 1.a = a where ‘1’ is the identity scalar.
 
b inclined at an angle θ is c . Calculate θ.
   ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS
Given a = b = c
Sol. c2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab cos θ The angle
or c2 = c2 + c2 + 2c2 cos θ [ a = b = c] between two
or c2 = 2c2(1 + cos θ) vectors is measured
1 1 by putting their
or 1 + cos θ = or cos θ = − tails together. Thus
2 2
in Fig. (ix), the
 1 
or θ = 120o cos120 = − 2 
o
vector b makes

angle θ with a such that 0 ≤ θ ≤ π . Also,
Ex.2 Calculate the angle between a two  
dyne and a three dyne force so that their the vector a makes angle −θ with b .
sum is four dyne.
Sol. P = 2 dyne, Q = 3 dyne SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO
R = 4 dyne, θ = ? VECTORS
R = P + Q 2 + 2PQcos θ
2 2

The scalar product of two vectors a
4 2 = 22 + 32 + 2 × 2 × 3 × cos θ   
or 16 = 4 + 9 + 12 cos θ and b is denoted by a ⋅ b and is a scalar
1 defined as :
or cos θ = = 0.2500 ⇒ θ = 75.52 o    
4 a ⋅ b = | a || b | cos θ
 
***************** where ‘θ’ is the angle between a and b
MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY such that 0 ≤ θ ≤ π .
A SCALAR    
The symbol a ⋅ b is read as a dot b
 and is also called the dot or the inner
Let a be any proper vector and ‘λ’ a scalar product.
(any real number) then multiplication of the
 
vector a by the scalar λ is denoted by λ a GEOMETRICAL MEANING OF DOT
and is also a vector whose PRODUCT
(i) Magnitude is |λ| times the magnitude of
  
vector a i.e. Let a and b be two proper vectors and let
  
| λa | = | λ || a | and whose 
 a = OA, b = OB . Let θ be the angle between
(ii) Direction is the same as that of a or  
 a and b ( 0 ≤ θ ≤ π ). Draw BM ⊥ OA.
opposite to the vector a according as λ > 0    
or λ < 0 respectively. Now a ⋅ b = | a || b | cos θ ---- (i)

If either λ = 0 or a = 0, we define | OM |
  = | OA || OB | cos θ = | OA || OB |
λa = 0 | OB |
= | OA || OM |
PROPERTIES OF MULTIPLICATION But OM is the projection of OB along OA.
OF VECTORS BY SCALARS

Let x, y be the scalars (Real numbers) and

 
a and b be two vectors, then
 
(i) x ( y a ) = ( x y) a (Associative law)
  
(ii) ( x + y) a = xa + ya (Right Distributive
law)
   
(iii) x (a + b) = xa + xb (Left Distributive
law)

Compiled and Written By: Pankaj Biswas (Lect. Physics) 15

Elements of Plus1Physics Oracle Institute, F-32, Exchange Road Kachi Chawani
Jammu
     
∴ a ⋅ b = (Length of a) × (Projection of b i.e. iff a ⋅ b = 0
 Cor. (ii) Condition for two vectors to be
in the direction of a)
parallel
Similarly,  
    The two vectors a and b will be
b ⋅ a = (Length of b) × (Projection of a  
parallel if a = λb , where ‘λ’ is some scalar
in the direction of b ) i.e. if a 1 = λb1 ; a 2 = λb 2 ; a 3 = λb 3
a1 a 2 a 3
i.e. iff = = = (λ )
PROPERTIES OF A SCALAR b1 b 2 b 3
PRODUCT Hence the two vectors all parallel
when the corresponding components are
   
(i) If a ⊥ b then a ⋅ b = ab cos 90° = 0 proportional.
(ii) The scalar product is commutative Ex. Find the value of m so that the vector
    3iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ may be perpendicular to the
i.e. a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a
(iii) The dot product is associative with vector 2iˆ + 6 ˆj + mkˆ .
respect to a scalar, Sol. The given vectors will be
     
i.e. ( x a ) ⋅ b = x (a ⋅ b) = a ⋅ ( x b), for x to perpendicular if their dot product is zero.
  i.e. ( 3iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ ).( 2iˆ + 6 ˆj + mkˆ ) = 0
be a scalar and a , b the vectors.
(iv) The dot product is distributive w.r.t. or 6(iˆ ⋅ iˆ) − 12( ˆj ⋅ ˆj ) + m(kˆ ⋅ kˆ) = 0
the vector addition or 6 − 12 + m = 0 or m − 6 = 0
      
i.e. a ⋅ (b + c) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c or m = 6
 Ex. What is the angle between the
(v) If a = a x î + a y ĵ + a z k̂
 following pair of vectors?
 
& b = b x î + b y ĵ + b z k̂ , where î , ĵ, k̂ are the A = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ and B = −2iˆ − 2 ˆj − 2kˆ
 
mutually ⊥ar unit vectors forming   A⋅ B
Orthonormal Triads such that Sol. A ⋅ B = AB cos θ or cos θ = ---- (i)
AB
î ⋅ î = ĵ ⋅ ĵ = k̂ ⋅ k̂ = 1 and î ⋅ ĵ = ĵ ⋅ k̂ = k̂ ⋅ î = 0 ,  
But A ⋅ B = (iˆ + ˆj + kˆ) ⋅ (−2iˆ − 2 ˆj − 2kˆ)
then
  or
a ⋅ b = a xbx + a yby + a zbz ***************

(vi) Length of a vector a is the positive
 VECTOR PRODUCT OF TWO
square root of the dot product of a with
itself i.e. VECTORS
   
Length of a = | a | = a ⋅ a  
  Def. Let a and b be two vectors, then the
If a = a x î + a y ĵ + a z k̂ , then | a | =  
vector product of a and b is a vector
a 2x + a 2y + a 2z  
denoted by a × b and is defined by
(vii) The angle between two vectors, ‘θ’, is    
a × b = | a || b | sin θ ⋅ n̂
given by the relation
  where | n̂ | = 1 and θ is the angle
a⋅b a xbx + a yby + a zbz  
cos θ = = between the vectors a and b and 0 < θ < π
ab a +b +a ⋅ b +b +b
2 2 2 2 2 2
x y z x y z n̂ is a unit vector in direction normal to

Cor. (i) Condition for two vectors to be

⊥ ar (orthogonal)
  π π
a and b will be ⊥ar if θ = i.e. iff =0
2 2
i.e. iff a x b x + a y b y + a z b z = 0

16 Compiled and Written By: Pankaj Biswas (Lect. Physics)

Elementary Mathematics Oracle Institute, F-32, Exchange Road Kachi Chawani Jammu
 
both a and b . The direction of n̂ is given 4. Find the value of unit vector ⊥ar to each
by the right hand first rule as follows: of the vectors 2î − 3 ĵ + k̂ and 3î + ĵ − 2k̂ .
 
5. If a = 2î − 3 ĵ − k̂ & b = î + 4 ĵ − 2k̂;
“Curl the finger of your right hand        
in such a manner as to push the vector Find (a + b), (a − b), (a + b) × (a − b)
  6. Find the sine of angle between the
a towards b through smaller angle
between them, with the thumb stretched vectors î + 3 ĵ + 2k̂ & 2î − 4 ĵ − k̂
outwards, then the thumb
 
gives the direction of a × b . Fig. (xi)
(Fig. (xi))
PROPERTIES OF VECTOR PRODUCT
(i) The vector product is non-commutative
       
i.e. a × b ≠ b × a , but a × b = −b × a
      
(ii) a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
 
(iii) a × a = 0
  
(iv) a × 0 = 0
   
(v) If a ⊥ b, then | a × b | = ab

(vi) If a = a x î + a y ĵ + a z k̂
and b = b x î + b y ĵ + b z k̂ , then
î k̂ ĵ
 
a ×b = ax
ay az
by bz
bx
 
(vii) If θ = 0° or θ = π then a × b = 0
 
|a×b|
(viii) tan θ =  
a⋅b
 
a×b
Also n̂ =  
|a×b|

AN IMPORTANT RESULT
     
(a × b ) 2 = | a | 2 | b | 2 − (a ⋅ b ) 2
(proof is left as an exercise)

* TRY YOURSELF
 
1. If a = 2î + xĵ − k̂ and b = 4î − 2 ĵ + 2k̂ ,
 
find x so that a ⊥ b .
   
2. If | a + b | = | a − b | , then show that
 
a ⊥ b.
 
3. If α = î + 2 ĵ − 3k̂ and β = 3î − ĵ + 2k̂ ,
calculate the angle between vectors
   
2α + β and α + 2β .

Compiled and Written By: Pankaj Biswas (Lect. Physics) 17