Limits

Functions of single variables

Calculus - Lectures
by
Dipankar Ghosh
IIT Hyderabad

December 16, 2020

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

MA1110 Calculus - I Syllabus for ‘Differential Calculus’

1 Differential Calculus:
Continuity and differentiability of a function of single variable, statement
of Rolle’s Theorem, Lagrange’s mean value theorem and applications.

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

Introduction: Limit of a function

1 The limit of a function is a fundamental concept in calculus concerning

the behaviour of the function near a particular point. The concept of limit
appears in the definitions of continuity and differentiability.
2 Consider a function f : D ! R, where D ✓ R. ee r ) n Ee} ED
Cc r -
.

3 Let c 2 R be a point satisfying certain condition that D contains an open

interval around c except possibly the point c itself. Er ' Ier e

4 We say that the function f has a limit L (2 R) as x tends to c if f (x) gets

closer and closer to L as x moves closer and closer to c.
5 Sometimes, we write f (x) has a limit at the point c.
6 For example, the function f (x) = sin(x)
x
has a limit 1 as x tends to 0.
sin(x) fan F- r
x x Since
y =

1 0.841471... > se

IRI {03 IR
→
0.1 0.998334... f :
Simen )
0.01 0.999983... fact F
Collected from Wikipedia.
Though the function f (x) = sin(x)
x
is not defined at 0, as x becomes closer
and closer to 0, the value of f (x) = sin(x)
x
becomes arbitrarily close to 1.
Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables
Examples: Limits of functions

Example (1)
The following function f (x) does not have a limit at the point x0 .
i Ln -_ Hoehn
No and → flynn) -
Izzy
la and fczm ) l,
Inn
-
-
→ do
2n = no -

e, -

•
Al

Though, the function f (x) has a limit at the point x1 .

Example (2)
f : IR IR 8 ya
if x < 0,
-

< 1
>
Consider the function f (x) =
greet
2 if x = 0, F- 2 •

>
:
x + 1 if x > 0. •

Though f (0) = 2, the limit of f (x) at x = 0 is 1. F- I

Draw the picture. > se

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

The -neighborhood of a point c in R

Definition
1 Let be a positive real number.
2 The -neighborhood of a point c in R is defined to be

N(c, ) := (c ,c + )
= {x 2 R : |x c| < }
= {x 2 R : c < x < c + }.

3 The deleted -neighborhood of a point c in R is defined to be

N 0 (c, ) := (c , c + ) r {c}
= {x 2 R : 0 < |x c| < }
= {x 2 R : c <x<c+ and x 6= c}.

Picture of -neighborhood.

C to 3
S ee ees IR
c-

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

Limit of a function via the notion of sequences

Definition
1 Consider a function f : D ! R, where D ✓ R is the domain of f .
2 Let c 2 R be a point such that D contains a deleted r-neighborhood
N 0 (c, r) of c for some r > 0, i.e., D contains an open interval (c r, c + r)
around c except possibly c itself. Here D may or may not contain the point c.
3 We say that the function f has a limit L at c if for every sequence
{xn } in D r {c} converging to c =) f (xn ) converges to L.
4 Then, we write f (x) ! L as x ! c or lim f (x) = L.
x!c

Example (1)
The following function f (x) does not have a limit at the point x0 . Though f (x)
has a limit at the point x1 . No and flynn) la
Hoehn
-
→

send
ferns Ln -_
•

flan) l,
-

and
tf
-
← → do
an = no -

di -

H
Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables
Example 2: Limit of a function via the notion of sequences

Example (2)
8
< 1
> if x < 0,
Consider the function f : R ! R defined by f (x) = 2 if x = 0,
>
:
x+1 if x > 0.
Though f (0) = 2, the limit lim f (x) = 1.
x!0

Proof.
Let {xn } be a sequence in R r{0} which converges to 0. We need to show
that {f (xn )} converges to 1. For any n 2 N,
(
|1 1| = 0 if xn < 0
|f (xn ) 1| =
|xn + 1 1| = xn if xn > 0.
af
Hence, since {xn } converges to 0, the sequence {f (xn )} converges to 1.
greet
F- 2 •

Let E > 0
Given neigh an -_ 0 .
.

've nlimxknn =0

nligzffent-1.se
.

,
y=±
s t Hn OKE An > N .

Z N
. -
-

Ifan) -
II < E tf n > N .
I
Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables
Example 3: Limit of a function via the notion of sequences

Example (3)
ay
Set D := R r{0}. Consider the function f : D ! R defined by
I= I
(
1 if x < 0,
f (x) = 11 >

1 if x > 0. C Fo
se

y = -
1

Then f (x) does not have a limit at 0. In other words, lim f (x) does not exists.
x!0

Proof.
Consider the sequences xn = 1
n
and yn = n
1
, both converge to 0.
1 {f (xn )} = {1} converges to 1, while If zn → c ? Bren
2 {f (yn )} = { 1} converges to 1.
fczn) → I. for any
Hence lim f (x) does not exists.
x!0 sequence ten3 .

Remark
For the above function, lim f (x) exists for any c 6= 0.
x!c

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

The ✏ definition of limits of functions
f : Ca ,
b) →
IR
Hypothesis CE Ca , b)
1 Consider a function f : D ! R, where D ✓ R is the domain of f .
2 Let c 2 R be a point such that D contains a deleted r-neighborhood
N 0 (c, r) of c for some r > 0, i.e., D contains an open interval (c r, c + r)
around c except possibly c itself. Here D may or may not contain the point c.

Theorem
With the above hypothesis, for a real number L, the following are equivalent:
Deft 1 For every sequence {xn } in D r {c}, lim xn = c =) lim f (xn ) = L.

HE
n!1 n!1
2 For every ✏ > 0, there exists > 0 such that
x 2 D and 0 < |x c| < =) |f (x) L| < ✏.
of
Det
erose
life ferns =L of it satisfies one

Definition (The ✏ definition of limits) equivalent

conditions
The function f has a limit L at c if for every ✏ > 0, there exists > 0 such that

x 2 D \ N 0 (c, ) =) f (x) 2 N(L, ✏).

Then, we write f (x) ! L as x ! c or lim f (x) = L.

x!c
Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables
Example 1: The ✏ definition of limits of functions

Definition (The ✏ definition of limits)

The function f has a limit L at c if for every ✏ > 0, there exists > 0 such that

x 2 D and 0 < |x c| < =) |f (x) L| < ✏.

Example (1)
8 lim ) =3
< 1
> if x < 0, n-szf.cn
Consider the function f (x) =
>
:
2 if x = 0,
Lett
> 0
8=E
.
31=4-21 -

x + 1 if x > 0. Ifcn) choose

-

Though f (0) = 2, the limit of f (x) at x = 0 is 1. The limit exists at every point.
70
ya
het C- .

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Zeta "
'=±
don't listen
- -

;
- - - - -

SEE !
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if n -

f
°

Ils
o ; ;
Hen ) ifnso
-

a
: :
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I
,

choose
8=E disseize be
Ilse
.

In 01<8 Hcm -
←
@ 8,687
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-

•
-
-

- Sensor
Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables
Example 2: The ✏ definition of limits of functions

Definition (The ✏ definition of limits)

The function f has a limit L at c if for every ✏ > 0, there exists > 0 such that

* x 2 D and 0 < |x c| < =) |f (x) L| < ✏.

Example (2)
(
1 if x < 0,
Consider the function f : D ! R defined by f (x) =
1 if x > 0.
where D := R r{0}. Then f (x) does not have a limit at 0. In other words,
lim f (x) does not exists, while lim f (x) exists for any c 6= 0.
x!0 x!c
not enist L which satisfies Ef

↳
There does
function fkn ) at a- O -
ya ,
.

* for
the
e

consider c- =L .
' ' "
eto
%
8
¥
,
> o ±
this E ,
For
k¥0
s t
Seuss 'z
.

Is female
. -
-

a -

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

The ✏ definition of limits of functions

Theorem
For a real number L, the following are equivalent:
1 For every sequence {xn } in D r {c}, lim xn = c =) lim f (xn ) = L.
n!1 n!1
2 For every ✏ > 0, there exists > 0 such that
(⇤⇤) x 2 D and 0 < |x c| < =) |f (x) L| < ✏.

Proof of (1) =) (2).

If possible, let ✏ > 0 for which there does not exist > 0 satisfying (⇤⇤).
Hence, for every > 0, there exists x 2 D satisfying

0 < |x c| < , but |f (x ) L| > ✏.

For every n 2 N, taking = 1n , there exists xn 2 D satisfying

0 < |xn c| < 1n , but |f (xn ) L| > ✏.

Thus, we obtain a sequence {xn } in D r {c} such that lim xn = c, but

n!1
lim f (xn ) 6= L. This contradicts the assumption that lim f (xn ) = L.
n!1 n!1

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

The ✏ definition of limits of functions

Theorem
For a real number L, the following are equivalent:
1 For every sequence {xn } in D r {c}, lim xn = c =) lim f (xn ) = L.
n!1 n!1
2 For every ✏ > 0, there exists > 0 such that
(⇤⇤) x 2 D and 0 < |x c| < =) |f (x) L| < ✏.

Proof of (2) =) (1).

1 Let {xn } be a sequence in D r {c} such that lim xn = c.
n!1
2 To show that lim f (xn ) = L, consider ✏ > 0.
n!1
3 By the condition (2), for the above ✏, there exists > 0 satisfying (⇤⇤).
4 Since lim xn = c, for > 0, there exists N such that |xn c| < for all
n!1
n > N.
5 It follows that |f (xn ) L| < ✏ for all n > N. So lim f (xn ) = L.
n!1

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

The relations between limits and algebraic operations

Theorem
Let c 2 R. Let f , g : D ! R be functions such that

lim f (x) = l and lim g(x) = m.

x!c x!c
g (xn )
- m
f.Cnn ) → e
1 lim(f + g)(x) = l + m. gemmy ee m
x!c fun) e →

l m

scan )
-

2 lim(f g)(x) = l m. form ) -

→

re
@Cnn))
x!c
-

3 lim(rf )(x) = rl for any r 2 R. fr f) cans =r .

x!c e. m
trunk fend scans
→

4 lim(f · g)(x) = l · m.
x!c Cf
✓ ◆
En
Eaux Eitan,
f l
5 lim (x) = provided m 6= 0. -

x!c g m

Proof.
Let {xn } be a sequence in D r {c} such that lim xn = c.
n!1
The theorem follows from Lecture 5 (the relations between limits and
algebraic operations of sequences).

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

If the limit is nonzero, then so is the function value on a neighborhood

Proposition
Let c 2 R. Let g : D ! R be a function such that lim g(x) = m 6= 0. Then:
x!c
1 If m > 0, then there exists > 0 such that g(x) > 0 for all x 2 N 0 (c, ) \ D.
2 If m < 0, then there exists > 0 such that g(x) < 0 for all x 2 N 0 (c, ) \ D.

Proof.
Let ✏ = |m|/2. Since m 6= 0, we have ✏ > 0. Since lim g(x) = m, for this
x!c
particular ✏, there exists > 0 such that
|m|
x 2 D and 0 < |x c| < =) |g(x) m| < ✏ =
2
|m| |m|
=) < g(x) m <
2 2
|m| |m|
=) m < g(x) < m + . (1)
2 2
The result follows from (1) and the observations below.
1 If m > 0, then m |m|
2
=m m
2
= m
2
> 0.
2 If m < 0, then m + |m|
2
=m m
2
= m
2
< 0.

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

Examples on the relations between limits and algebraic operations

Example (1)
Define f : R ! R by f (x) = an xn + an 1 xn 1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , a polynomial
over R. For every point c 2 R, the limit lim f (x) exists, and
x!c

lim f (x) = an c + ann

1c
n 1
+ · · · + a1 c + a0 . He 1
x!c 2.
see
of product
x.
Enanfle zeke za i =

Proof. - Isms e'nation and sum .

It can be proved easily that lim x = c and lim ai = ai . Hence use the
x!c x!c
relations between limits and algebraic operations.

Example (2)
Consider f (x) and g(x), two polynomial functions as above. Let c 2 R such
f (x) f (x) f (c)
that g(c) 6= 0. Then the limit lim exists, and lim = .
x!c g(x) x!c g(x) g(c)

Proof.
Use Example 1 and the relation between limits and division.

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

Absolute value of a function

Theorem
Let c 2 R. Let f : D ! R be a function such that lim f (x) = L. Then
x!c

lim |f (x)| exists, and lim |f (x)| = |L|.

x!c x!c

Proof.
Let {xn } be a sequence in D r {c} such that lim xn = c. Since lim f (x) = L,
n!1 x!c
we have lim f (xn ) = L. Therefore, by Lecture 5,
n!1

lim |f (xn )| = |L|.

n!1

Hence the follows.

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

Sandwich Theorem

Theorem
Let c 2 R. Let f , g, h : D ! R be functions such that

f (x) 6 g(x) 6 h(x) for all x 2 D and lim f (x) = L = lim h(x).
x!c x!c

Then lim g(x) = L.

x!c

Proof.
Let {xn } be a sequence in D r {c} such that lim xn = c. Then
n!1

f (xn ) 6 g(xn ) 6 h(xn ) for all n 2 N and lim f (xn ) = L = lim h(xn ).
n!1 n!1

Hence, by the Sandwich Theorem for sequences (Lecture 6),

lim g(xn ) = L.
n!1

Thus lim g(x) = L.

x!c

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

An example on Sandwich Theorem

Example
Let g : D ! R be defined by g(x) = x cos 1x for all x 2 D := R r{0}. Using
Sandwich Theorem, we obtain that
✓ ◆
1
lim x cos = 0.
x!0 x

Proof.
Since cos 1
x
6 1, it follows that x cos 1
x
6 |x|, hence

|x| 6 x cos 1
x
6 |x| for all x 2 D.

Since

lim( |x|) = 0 = lim |x|,

x!0 x!0

by the Sandwich Theorem, we have the result.

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

Inequality on limits

Theorem
Let c 2 R. Let f , g : D ! R be functions such that

f (x) 6 g(x) for all x 2 D.

Suppose lim f (x) = L1 and lim g(x) = L2 . Then

x!c x!c

L1 6 L2 .

Proof.
Let {xn } be a sequence in D r {c} such that lim xn = c. Then
n!1

f (xn ) 6 g(xn ) for all n 2 N.

It follows from Lecture 6 that lim f (xn ) 6 lim g(xn ). Hence L1 6 L2 .

n!1 n!1

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

The converse to the previous theorem is also true as below

Theorem
Let c 2 R. Let f , h : D ! R be functions such that lim f (x) = L1 and
x!c
lim h(x) = L2 . If L1 < L2 , then there exists > 0 such that
x!c

f (x) < h(x) for all x 2 N 0 (c, ) \ D.

PAY
>
set
gents heh fois
Proposition (Discussed in the previous lecture)
-
lemme gene Lz .

-3g
went use
Let c 2 R. Let g : D ! R be a function such that lim g(x) = m 6= 0. Then:
t uhe e prooff.se#ion
-

x!c
1 If m > 0, then there exists > 0 such that g(x) > 0 for all x 2 N 0 (c, ) \ D.
2 If m < 0, then there exists > 0 such that g(x) < 0 for all x 2 N 0 (c, ) \ D.

Let ✏ = |m|/2. Since m 6= 0, we have ✏ > 0. Since lim g(x) = m, for this particular ✏,
x!c
there exists > 0 such that
|m|
x 2 D and 0 < |x c| < =) |g(x) m| < ✏ =
2
|m| |m|
=) m < g(x) < m + . (2)
2 2
The result follows from (2) and the observations:
If m > 0, then m m m
> 0. If m < 0, then m + m m
|m| |m|
2
=m 2
= 2 2
=m 2
= 2
< 0.
Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables
-­
One-sided limit: ‘Left hand limit’

Theorem
Let f : D ! R be a function. Let c 2 R be such that (c r, c) ✓ D for some
r > 0. For a real number L, the following are equivalent:
1 For every sequence {xn } in D with xn < c, lim xn = c =) lim f (xn ) = L.
n!1 n!1
2 For every ✏ > 0, there exists > 0 such that
x 2 D and c < x < c =) |f (x) L| < ✏.
r
ee
-

ye
Definition (Left hand limit)
For a function f : D ! R as above, if it satisfies one of the equivalent
conditions, then we say that f has a left hand limit at c, and we write

f (x) ! L as x tends to c from the left side, or lim f (x) = L.

x!c

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

Example: ‘Left hand limit’

Example
(
1 if x < 0,
For f : R r{0} ! R defined by f (x) = ay
1 if x > 0.
2=1

11 7
se
C #o
y = -
I

Then f (x) does not have a limit at 0, but lim f (x) exists, and it is same as 1.
x!0

Proof.
Consider any sequence {xn } with xn < 0 which converges to 0. Then

{f (xn )} = { 1} converges to 1.

Therefore lim f (x) = 1.

x!0

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

One-sided limit: ‘Right hand limit’

Theorem
Let f : D ! R be a function. Let c 2 R be such that (c, c + r) ✓ D for some
r > 0. For a real number L, the following are equivalent:
1 For every sequence {xn } in D with xn > c, lim xn = c =) lim f (xn ) = L.
n!1 n!1
2 For every ✏ > 0, there exists > 0 such that
x 2 D and c < x < c + =) |f (x) L| < ✏.

Definition (Right hand limit)

For a function f : D ! R as above, if it satisfies one of the equivalent
conditions, then we say that f has a right hand limit at c, and we write

f (x) ! L as x tends to c from the right side, or lim f (x) = L.

x!c+

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

Example: ‘Right hand limit’

Example
(
1 if x < 0,
For f : R r{0} ! R defined by f (x) = ay
1 if x > 0.
2=1

11 7
se
C #o
y = -
I

Then f (x) does not have a limit at 0, but lim f (x) exists, and it is same as 1.
x!0+

Proof.
Consider any sequence {xn } with xn > 0 which converges to 0. Then

{f (xn )} = {1} converges to 1.

Therefore lim f (x) = 1.

x!0+

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

Limit exists iff both left and right hand limits exist and they are same

Theorem
Let f : D ! R be a function. Let c 2 R be such that (c r, c + r) ✓ D except
possibly the point c itself for some r > 0. Then the following are equivalent:
1 The limit lim f (x) exists.
x!c
2 Both lim f (x) and lim f (x) exist, and lim f (x) = lim f (x).
x!c x!c+ x!c x!c+

Example
(
1 if x < 0,
For f : R r{0} ! R defined by f (x) = ay
1 if x > 0.
2=1

A >
se
C #o
y = -
I

Then f (x) does not have a limit at 0. Here lim f (x) = 1 6= 1 = lim f (x).
x!0 x!0+

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

Limit exists iff both left and right hand limits exist and they are same

Example
8
< 1
> if x < 0,
Consider the function f : R ! R defined by f (x) = 2 if x = 0,
>
:
x+1 if x > 0.

ya
l
free
F- 2 ••

••

L=I

> se

Here lim f (x) = 1. 't 't

x!0 = e
Note that both lim f (x) and lim f (x) exist, and these are equal to 1.
x!0 x!0+

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables

Thank you!

Dipankar Ghosh (IIT Hyderabad) Limits of functions of single variables