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Dissolved air flotation model for drinking water treatment

Article  in  Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering · February 2011

DOI: 10.1139/cjce-27-2-373

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 373

Dissolved air flotation model for drinking water

treatment
Ayman R. Shawwa and Daniel W. Smith

Abstract: In this study, a kinetic model that describes bubble–particle transport and attachment in the contact zone of
dissolved air flotation (DAF) process is presented. The kinetic model, which is based on the assumption that the con-
tact zone is analogous to a chemical reactor, describes the particle removal rate as a first-order reaction with respect to
the concentration of particles. It identified important parameters, such as the bubble–particle attachment efficiency
(a PB ). The theoretical first-order particle removal rate constant (kP), based on the mathematical model, was determined
by varying a PB from 0.1 to 1.0. On the other hand, the experimental kP value was determined by measuring the mean
residence time, the degree of mixing of particles, and the particle removal efficiency of the contact zone by conducting
pilot-scale DAF experiments at different hydraulic loading rates and recycle ratios. The experimentally determined first-
order particle removal rate constant was equal to the theoretical kP value when the bubble–particle attachment effi-
ciency (a PB ) was in the range of 0.35 to 0.55, which is considered typical for water treatment applications. The kinetic
model can be used to predict DAF removal efficiencies provided that a PB is determined for the system under investiga-
tion and that the operating conditions applied in this research are used. However, independent experiments are required
to verify the applicability of the proposed model.

Key words: algae, bubble, coagulation, dissolved air flotation, flocculation, kinetic model, particle size distribution, wa-
ter treatment.

Résumé : Dans cette étude, un modèle cinétique qui décrit le transport et l'attachement de particules aérées dans la
zone de contact du procédé d'émergence d'air dissous (EAD) est présenté. Le modèle cinétique, qui est basé sur
l'hypothèse que la zone de contact est analogue à un réacteur chimique, décrit le taux d'enlèvement de particules
comme une réaction du premier ordre en fonction de la concentration de particules. Il a identifié d'important paramè-
tres, tel que l'efficacité d'attachement des particules aérées (a PB ). La constante théorique du taux d'enlèvement de parti-
cules du premier ordre (kp), basée sur un modèle mathématique, fut déterminée en variant a PB de 0,1 à 1,0. D'un autre
côté, la valeur expérimentale kp fut déterminée en mesurant le temps moyen de résidence, le degré de mélange des par-
ticules et l'efficacité d'enlèvement des particules lors d'expériences pilotes d'EAD avec différents taux de charge hydrau-
lique et degrés de recyclage. La constante du taux d'enlèvement de particules du premier ordre établie
expérimentalement fut égale à la valeur kp théorique lorsque l'efficacité d'attachement des particules aérées (a PB ) était
entre 0,35 et 0,55, ce qui est typique pour des applications de traitement de l'eau. Le modèle cinétique peut être utilisé
pour prédire les efficacités de retrait du procédé d'EAD, en autant que (a PB ) soit déterminée pour le système considéré
et que les conditions d'opération appliquées dans cette recherche soient employées. Cependant, des expériences indé-
pendantes sont requises afin de vérifier l'applicabilité du modèle proposé.

Mots clés : algue, bulle, coagulation, émergence d'air dissous, flocculation, modèle cinétique, distribution de la dimen-
sion des particules, traitement de l'eau.

[Traduit par la Rédaction] Shawwa and Smith 382

Introduction
Dissolved air flotation (DAF) is an alternative process for
solid–liquid separation whereby particles are removed by
means of their attachment to air bubbles. This process was
recognized as early as 1924 for the recovery of fibers and
Received January 18, 1999.
Revised manuscript accepted September 21, 1999.
A.R. Shawwa and D.W. Smith. Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton,
AB T6G 2M8, Canada.
Written discussion of this article is welcomed and will be
received by the Editor until August 31, 2000.
white paper in the paper industry (Gregory 1997). It has be-
come increasingly important in the field of drinking water
treatment since the mid-1960, especially in Scandinavia and
the U.K. It is an emerging technology in North America and
is used successfully for treating soft, low alkalinity, natu-
rally colored, and algae-laden waters.
The DAF process can be divided into two sub-processes:
the pretreatment process and the flotation process. The DAF
pretreatment process involves two steps: particle destabi-
lization and particle flocculation. Particle destabilization oc-
curs during the rapid mixing stage, after the addition of
chemical coagulants, where the coagulants are dispersed uni-
formly and quickly so as to cause destabilization of colloidal
particles in the raw water. On the other hand, particle floccu-
lation and growth of aggregates occur during the slow mix-

Can. J. Civ. Eng. 27: 373–382 (2000) © 2000 NRC Canada

374
ing stage. The principal aim of this process is the transport
of the destabilized particles and to promote collisions and
floc formation.
The major component of the DAF process is the flotation
process. It consists of a saturator system, where water is sat-
urated with air under pressure, and a circular or rectangular
flotation tank. The flotation tank is divided into the contact
zone and the separation zone. The purpose of the contact
zone is to collide and attach particles to bubbles, while the
purpose of the separation zone is to provide relatively quies-
cent conditions for particle–bubble agglomerates to rise to
the surface of the tank.
In the contact zone, the supersaturated water is injected
into the flotation tank through a nozzle. The resultant pres-
sure reduction releases air from solution as micro-bubbles,
i.e., bubbles with diameter ranging from 10 to 100 mm. The
mass of air released can be expressed in terms of the bubble
volume concentration (FB), which is defined as the bubble
number concentration multiplied by the average volume of a
single class of bubbles with a volumetric mean diameter
(dB). These bubbles collide with the flocculated particles in
the contact zone forming bubble–particle agglomerates.
As a result of bubble attachment, the apparent density of
the formed bubble–particle agglomerates is reduced below
that of water and the agglomerates would rise in the separa-
tion zone. The rise velocity of the particle–bubble agglomer-
ate (UPB aggl) could be calculated, assuming Stokes drag
conditions, i.e., RePB £ 1.0, as follows:
g(r w - r PB)dPB2
[1] UPB aggl =
18m
where RePB is defined as UPB aggldPBr PB/m, r W is the water
density, g is the acceleration due to gravity, m is the water
dynamic viscosity, r PB is the particle–bubble agglomerates
density, and dPB is the equivalent spherical diameter of the
particle–bubble agglomerates (Edzwald 1995). The equiva-
lent spherical diameter (dPB) can be calculated as follows:
[2] dPB = (dp3 + nBdB3)1/3
where nB is the number of bubbles attached to particles and
dp is the particle equivalent spherical diameter.
For particle density (r P ) and bubble density (r B), r PB can
be calculated as follows:
r P dP 3 + n Br BdB3
[3] r PB =
dP 3 + n BdB3
The performance of the DAF process, in terms of particle
removal efficiency, is dependent on many physical and
chemical interactions inside the contact zone. Therefore, by
developing a kinetic model that would describe bubble–par-
ticle interactions inside the contact zone, the performance of
the DAF process could be predicted at different operational
conditions.
The objectives of this study were (i) to present a kinetic
model for the contact zone of the DAF process and (ii) to
determine experimentally the bubble–particle attachment ef-
ficiency (a PB) by comparing the experimental first-order par-
ticle removal rate constant (kP) with the theoretical value. To
achieve this objective, three supplemental objectives were
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 27, 2000
established in this study: (i) to measure the mean residence
time and the degree of mixing of particles inside the contact
zone, (ii) to measure bubble size and concentration and su-
perficial liquid velocity inside the contact zone, and (iii) to
measure the particle removal efficiencies of the contact
zone. All these measurements were made at different hy-
draulic loading rates and recycle ratios.
Kinetic model for dissolved air flotation
contact zone
Edzwald and co-workers have described a conceptual
model for particle collection by bubbles in the contact zone
of the DAF process (Edzwald et al. 1990; Malley and
Edzwald 1991; Edzwald 1995). Their model is based on the
single collector efficiency (SCE) concept that is used to de-
scribe particle–bubble collision and attachment for a batch
system. This concept has been used successfully to describe
dispersed air flotation (Malley and Edzwald 1991).
The SCE model describes the mass transport of particles
from the bulk water to bubble surfaces, in which bubbles act
as collectors. A basic assumption was used in this model
where bubbles are formed rapidly and almost instanta-
neously in the contact zone (Edzwald 1997). The single bub-
ble removal efficiency (R) is equal to the total single bubble
collector efficiency (hT) multiplied by the bubble–particle
collision efficiency factor (a PB). The total single collector ef-
ficiency is equivalent to the sum of four transport mecha-
nisms, expressed as single collector efficiency: Brownian
diffusion, interception, differential settling, and inertia. For
DAF water treatment applications, where typical particle
size (dp) is of the order of 10 mm, the transport by intercep-
tion is the most significant term in the total single collector
efficiency (Edzwald 1995). Therefore, hT can be approxi-
mated by the single collector efficiency for interception,
which can be expressed as follows:
2
3 æç dP ö÷
[4] hT =
2 çè dB ÷ø
On the other hand, a PB is strongly dependent on pH, coagu-
lant type, and dosage, with typical values ranging from 0.3
to 0.5 (Liers et al. 1996).
The SCE model can be used to describe the particle re-
moval rate in the contact zone. This can be achieved by re-
garding the contact zone as analogous to a chemical reactor
(Gochin 1981). Several attempts have been made by differ-
ent researchers to describe the particle overall removal rate
in batch systems, using the first-order expression with re-
spect to the concentration of particles (Sutherland 1948;
Collins and Jameson 1976; Edzwald et al. 1990). Using the
first-order expression, with respect to particle number con-
centration (NP), the particle removal rate (dNP/dt) can be ex-
pressed as
n
dN P
[5] = å -kP (N P ) i
dt i =1
where n is the number of classes in the particle size distribu-
tion (PSD) and kP is a lumped parameter called the first-
order particle removal rate constant. The first-order constant,
© 2000 NRC Canada
Shawwa and Smith
which is determined experimentally for the system under in-
vestigation, involves physical, chemical, and surface vari-
ables that describe the bubble–particle interaction process.
An expression for the contact zone removal rate constant,
under continuous flow conditions, was developed based on
eq. [5] (Shawwa 1998). The first-order particle removal rate
constant (kP) for mean particle size (dP) was defined as
9 é(U + UB rel ) 2 ù d 2
[6] kP = a PB ê L ú P 3 FB
4 êë L
( 2U + UB rel ú
) û dB
where UL is the liquid superficial velocity and UB rel is the
relative bubble rise velocity approximated by Stoke’s rise
velocity for a spherical bubble with diameter dB.
For the proposed kinetic model, it was assumed that,
given the narrow range of particle and bubble sizes, the first-
order particle removal rate constant (kP) is the rate constant
for particles of size dP, which is equivalent to the mean of
the particle size distribution, and bubbles of size dB, which is
equivalent to the mean of the bubble size distribution. Also,
the particle–bubble collision efficiency factor (a PB) was as-
sumed to be the same for all particles and bubbles in the ap-
plied size range. In a real DAF system, there will exist a
distribution of rate constants and a PB values reflecting a
range of particle and bubble sizes. However, utilizing the
mean value of bubble and particle size distributions has been
shown to adequately describe the process at this stage of
analysis.
The particle removal rate defined in eq. [5] can be ex-
pressed in terms of the particle removal per contact zone
height (HCZ). Considering steady-state conditions, i.e., UL is
constant, the contact zone kinetic model for the continuous
flow DAF process can be presented as
ì 9 é (U + UB rel ) ù d 2
N CZ e ï ï
[7] = exp í - a PB ê L ú P 3 FBHCZ ý
N CZ o
îï
4 êë(2UL + UB rel ) úû dB
where NCZ o,i is the particle number concentration, for parti-
cles of size dPi, entering the contact zone and NCZ e,i is the
particle number concentration, for particle size dPi, exiting
the contact zone (Shawwa 1998).
The particle removal efficiency in the contact zone (RCZ)
can be calculated based on eq. [7], which is defined as
n æ ö
N as follows:
[8] RCZ = 1 - å ç CZ e ÷
ç ÷
i =1 è N CZ o øi
The kinetic model presented in eq. [7] has incorporated the
batch SCE model into a continuous flow system, which is
more representative of the real DAF system. The model
identified important design and operating parameters that
can be measured experimentally for the particular DAF ap-
plication. It has considered the effect of contact zone hydro-
dynamics, i.e., the superficial liquid velocity, on DAF
particles removal efficiency. However, the model assumed a
constant kP and a PB values, whereas a distribution of rate
constants and a PB values exist for real DAF systems. Also,
the model applies only to particles with diameters less than
100 mm because detachment forces between particles and
bubbles were not considered.
375
In an actual DAF system, the particle removal efficiency
in the contact zone is influenced by the mixing conditions.
These conditions can be described as intermediate between
perfectly mixed and plug flow. The mixing conditions can be
determined by the mean residence time of particles (tm) and
the degree of mixing of particles inside the contact zone.
The degree of particle mixing inside the contact zone can be
measured using the dimensionless Peclet number (Pe),
which is the inverse of the dispersion number (Nd), defined
as
Da
[9] Pe =
UL L
where Da is the axial dispersion coefficient and L is the dis-
tance between the point of the tracer injection and the point
where the measurements were taken.
The degree of particle mixing and the mean residence
time can be determined experimentally using tracer studies.
When a pulse of tracer is introduced into the fluid influent
line just upstream from the contact zone and the concentra-
tion of the tracer (C) exiting the contact zone is measured
over time (t), then a residence time distribution (RTD) of the
liquid can be obtained. The collected concentrations are then
normalized to produce a curve enclosing unit area above the
time axis. This can be represented mathematically as the
RTD density function (Levenspiel 1972).
For first-order reactions and for vessels with any kind of
entrance and exit conditions, the experimental removal effi-
ciency for the contact zone (RCZ) can be defined as
4a exp(Pe / 2)
[10] RCZ = 1 -
(1 + a) 2 exp(aPe / 2) - (1 - a) 2 exp(-aPe / 2)
ü where a is defined as [1 + (4kPtm/Pe)]1/2 (Levenspiel 1972).
The experimental particle removal efficiency for the con-
þï tact zone (RCZ) can be calculated by estimating the particle
number concentration (NCZ e,i), for particle size dPi. To esti-
mate NCZ e,i, a critical particle–bubble agglomerate diameter
(dPB critical,i) is assumed to exist when the agglomerates rise
velocity (UPB aggl,i) is equal to the overflow rate of the sepa-
ration zone (UOS). Since the flow conditions around the par-
ticle–bubble agglomerates are considered laminar relative to
the fluid, i.e., Reynold number for particle–bubble agglom-
erate (RePB) £1.0, then the critical diameter can be expressed
0.5
é 18mUOS ù
[11] dPB critical, i = ê ú
ë g(r w - r PB) û
Agglomerates having diameter (dPBi) larger than the criti-
cal diameter (dPB critical,i) will have rise velocity higher than
UOS and therefore will be separated from the effluent. On
the other hand, agglomerates with dPBi smaller than
dPB critical, i will be carried out with the effluent, together with
those particles that are free from attached bubbles. There-
fore, by calculating dPBi, for each particle size (dPi), one
could determine the number concentration of the fraction of
particles that would be separated and the number concentra-
tion of the fraction of particles that would be conveyed with
the effluent.
© 2000 NRC Canada
376
Fig. 1. Particle mass balance for DAF contact and separation
zones.
To simplify, the particle mass balance diagram for the
contact and the separation zones, shown in Fig. 1, was used
to calculate the experimental RCZ. In Fig. 1, both particles
free of attached bubbles, represented by number concentra-
tion (NCZ e,i), and particles attached to air bubbles, repre-
sented by number concentration of (NCZ o,i – NCZ e,i), enter
the DAF separation zone. The number of attached air bub-
bles was assumed to be 1. This is based on the fact that the
mean bubble diameter (~60 mm) was larger than the mean
particle diameter (~10 mm), for bubble’s and particle’s size
distributions investigated in this study. Images of bubble–
particle agglomerates that were taken in this study, using the
videophotography technique, showed that about 90% of
these agglomerates comprised of one bubble attached to one
particle (Shawwa 1998). However, in real DAF system, it is
expected that more than one bubble may attach to one parti-
cle and more than one particle may attach to one bubble.
Particle–bubble agglomerates, with particle number con-
centration (NCZo,i – NCZe,i)2, have mean diameter larger than
dPB critical,i, and therefore were separated and collected on the
top of the DAF separation tank forming the sludge layer. On
the other hand, bubble–particle agglomerates, with particle
number concentration (NCZ o,i – NCZ e,i)1, have mean diameter
smaller than dPB critical,i, and therefore were conveyed with
the effluent in addition to those particles with no attached
bubbles.
Therefore, the particle number concentration of the DAF
effluent (NDAF e,i), which is measured experimentally, would
be equal to NCZ e,i plus (NCZ o,i – NCZ e,i)1. The fraction
(NCZ o,i – NCZ e,i)1 could be calculated by comparing dPBi
with dPB critical,i, for all particles of size dPi in the PSD. As a
result, the particle number concentration (NCZ e,i), for all par-
ticles of size dPi, could be estimated by subtracting (NCZ o,i –
NCZ e,i)1 from NDAF e,i. Therefore, the experimental particle
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 27, 2000
Table 1. Standard values for contact
zone kinetic model variables used for
the sensitivity analysis.
Model variable Reference value
a PB 0.5
dP* 10 mm
dB 50 mm
F B† 4000 ppm
UL 70 m/h
HCZ‡ 3000 mm
*
dP was based on the mean diameter of the
PSD of the flocculated algae used in this
research.
†
FB was calculated based on saturator
efficiency factor of 0.84, Psat = 484 kPa, and
RR = 7%.
‡
HCZ was calculated based on mean contact
zone residence time of 150 s.
removal efficiency (RCZ) could be calculated based on
eq. [8].
After calculating the experimental RCZ, for different hy-
draulic loading rates and recycle ratios, the experimental kP
could be calculated, by trial and error. This is achieved by
using eq. [10] and the values of the mean residence time (tm)
and the Peclet number (Pe) obtained from the tracer study.
As a result, the experimental a PB values could be determined
by comparing the experimental kP values with the theoretical
first-order particle removal rate constants. This is done by
assuming a PB values (in eq. [6]) ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 to
find where the theoretical kP values agree with the measured
values.
Model sensitivity analysis
Sensitivity analysis was employed to describe the effect of
important parameters on the proposed kinetic model. The
parameters that were evaluated are the particle–bubble at-
tachment efficiency factor (a PB), the mean bubble diameter
(dB), the bubble volume concentration (FB), and the particle
diameter (dP). A set of standard values was chosen for each
of the parameters that would be representative of those used
in practice. These values are summarized in Table 1.
The effect of a PB on DAF performance is extremely im-
portant. Several studies indicated that for a stable system
(i.e., a PB ~ 0) poor flotation performance is observed (Mal-
ley and Edzwald 1991; Edzwald 1995). However, as parti-
cles are destabilized and a PB increases, DAF removal
efficiencies increase. The effect of a PB on particle removal is
shown in Fig. 2. The results suggest that particle destabiliza-
tion is required because as a PB approaches zero the particle
removal is reduced. DAF performance increases rapidly with
increasing a PB, and the calculated removal efficiency was
higher than 95% for a PB values in the range of 0.1 to 0.3.
The importance of bubble size on DAF performance has
been demonstrated in several studies (Reay and Ratcliff
1973; Collins and Jameson 1976). The proposed kinetic
model shows that particle removal rate will vary as dB–3.
Therefore, a significant improvement in DAF performance is
expected with decreasing the bubble size. Figure 3 demon-
strates the effect of bubble diameter on model performance.
© 2000 NRC Canada
Shawwa and Smith
Fig. 2. Effect of a PB on particle removal efficiency (standard
conditions shown in Table 1).
Fig. 3. Effect of dB on particle removal efficiency (standard con-
ditions shown in Table 1).
These data indicate that good performance is achieved for
bubble sizes below about 60 mm.
The effect of bubble volume concentration (FB) is illus-
trated in Fig. 4. The model simulation indicates that particle
removal rate increases sharply with increasing FB and that
more than 95% removal is achieved at approximately FB
equal to 2000 ppm. Bubble volume concentration is con-
trolled by the saturator pressure and the recycle ratio. Since
the saturator pressure does not vary much in practice, the re-
cycle ratio is considered the more important design and op-
erating parameter. For the condition used in the sensitivity
analysis, a recycle ratio of 7% is considered to be the opti-
mum value for pilot- and full-scale DAF water treatment fa-
cilities (Zabel 1985).
The effect of particle diameter (dP) on DAF performance is
shown in Fig. 5. The results indicate that particle removal im-
proves sharply as dP increases. The model predicts that
greater than 95% of particles are removed for particle sizes
377
Fig. 4. Effect of F B on particle removal efficiency (standard
conditions shown in Table 1).
Fig. 5. Effect of dp on particle removal efficiency (standard con-
ditions shown in Table 1).
larger than 10 mm. As expected, the removal efficiency in-
creases as dP is increased because hT, which is approximated
by hI for particle size larger than 1 mm, is proportional to dP2.
Materials and methods
Pilot-scale dissolved air flotation system
In this study, a continuous flow pilot-scale DAF system
was used for measuring the experimental particle removal
efficiency for the contact zone (RCZ), as shown in Fig. 6. The
experimental setup included mixing column, contact zone
column, separation zone tank, air dosing system, floccula-
tion unit, and rapid mixing unit.
For the purpose of this study, the contact and the separa-
tion zones were physically delineated by designing the DAF
tank as a coaxial column. The inner column was the contact
zone column and the outside column was the separation
zone. The contact zone hydraulic loading rate was based on
© 2000 NRC Canada
378
Fig. 6. Experimental setup for the pilot-scale DAF system.
the total water flow rate (Qtotal), which is equal to the floc-
culated water flow rate (Qwater) plus the saturated water flow
rate (Qsat) divided by the maximum cross-sectional area of
the contact zone. The air dosing system was used to produce
supersaturated water, which was injected into the contact
zone to produce fine bubbles with mean diameter (dB) and
mean volume concentration (FB). The bubble volume con-
centration can be controlled by the recycle ratio (RR), which
is defined as Qsat divided by Qwater.
The flocculator provided 5 minutes of residence time at a
flow rate of 0.7 m3/h. Mixing was accomplished by using
variable speed motor, which provided mixing intensity (G)
ranging from 30 to 150 s–1. The rapid mixing unit used in
this study was an in-line static mixer. The objective of the
rapid mixing unit was to disperse the coagulant in raw water
as rapidly as possible (less than 1 s) and at high intensities
of mixing (G values of 3000 to 4000 s–1).
Experimental procedures for the tracer study
The tracer study was conducted using the pulse-input test
to determine the experimental RTD for deionized water in-
side the contact zone. A pulse of NaCl was injected just
below the saturated water injection point. The system re-
sponse, as a function of time, was monitored by recording
the change of the conductivity of water inside the contact
zone. The conductivity–time profiles were afterwards trans-
lated into concentration–time profiles. The RTD of the con-
tact zone was measured at four different hydraulic loading
rates: 30, 50, 70, and 90 m/h. Also, at each hydraulic load-
ing rate, recycle ratios were varied from 3% to 7%. The de-
tails of the experimental procedures can be found in Shawwa
and Smith (1998).
Measurement of superficial liquid velocity, bubble size,
and concentration
The system that was used for measuring superficial liquid
velocity and bubble size and concentration was the 2-D
DANTEC particle dynamic analyzer (DANTEC, Denmark).
This instrument is based on phase Doppler anemometry that
is an extension of the laser Doppler anemometry. The parti-
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 27, 2000
cle dynamic analyzer (PDA) instrument was properly ad-
justed for the flow being studied. The instrument adjustment
includes transmitting optics adjustment, receiving optics ad-
justment, and electronics adjustment (Shawwa 1998).
Superficial liquid velocities (UL) were measured at hy-
draulic loading rates ranging from 30 to 90 m/h. Bubble size
(dB) and volume concentration (FB) were measured at hy-
draulic loading rates ranging from 30 to 90 m/h and at RR
ranging from 3% to 7%, at saturator pressure of 484 kPa.
Measurements were replicated four times and the average
was taken as the mean value for UL, dB, and FB.
Experimental procedures for the contact zone removal
efficiencies (RCZ)
These experiments were conducted using the optimum co-
agulant dosage and using synthetic water, which contained
green algae. The experimental procedures for the determina-
tion of RCZ involved the preparation of the synthetic water
and the algae culture, the determination of the optimum co-
agulant dosage, and the measurement of the particle number
concentration of the DAF effluent (NDAF e,i), at different hy-
draulic loading rates and RR.
Synthetic water and algae culture preparation
The synthetic water used in this study consisted of
Chlorella vulgaris suspended in chemically conditioned de-
ionized water. The synthetic water had an alkalinity of 10-3
equivalent/L, calcium hardness of 1.2 × 10–3 equivalent/L,
and ionic strength of 4.5 × 10–3 equivalent/L. Chlorella vul-
garis cultures were purchased from the University of To-
ronto culture collection and were cultured and grown in
synthetic algae growth media (Edzwald and Malley 1990).
Algae growth phase was monitored using a Hiac/Royco par-
ticle counter (model 8000, Pacific Scientific). The particle
counter sensor had a size range of 1–150 mm with a maxi-
mum particle concentration of 16 000 particles greater than
1.0 mm/mL. Chlorella v. was grown for 7–10 days, to obtain
cell number concentration of approximately 107 cell/mL for
log growth phase conditions.
© 2000 NRC Canada
Shawwa and Smith 379

Table 2. Tracer study results for the contact zone of the DAF Fig. 7. Particle size number distributions for hydraulic loading
process. rate of 90 m/h and RR of 7%.
Hydraulic
loading rate RR tm HRT*
(m/h) (%) Pe (min) (min)
90 7 37.2 1.3 1.0
90 3 41.4 1.2 1.0
70 7 31.5 1.5 1.2
70 3 36.7 1.4 1.2
30 7 13.9 3.8 2.9
*
Hydraulic retention time of the contact zone.

Table 3. Summary of the PDA experimental results.

Hydraulic
loading rate* RR dB FB UL†
(m/h) (%) (mm) (ppm) (×10–2 m/s)
90 7 52.7 5119 2.55
90 3 56.7 2263 2.55
70 7 63.2 5020 2.13
70 3 66.1 2251 2.14 Fig. 8. Particle removal efficiency for hydraulic loading rate of
30 7 86.0 4930 1.07 90 m/h and RR of 7%.
30 3 89.5 2210 1.05
*
Hydraulic loading rate based on the measured Qtotal divided by the
maximum cross section of the contact zone.
†
UL measured using the PDA instrument.

Optimum coagulant dosage

In these experiments, the optimum coagulant dose for the
synthetic water was determined based on treated water tur-
bidity of 0.1 NTU and the lowest particle count in the
treated water. The coagulant selected for this study was
PACl (polyaluminum hydroxchlorosulphate), which has a
specific gravity of 1.203, basicity of 50%, and a strength of
10.2% as Al2O3. The bench-scale DAF unit (Aztec Environ-
mental Control Ltd., U.K.) was used for these experiments
(Shawwa 1998).
Measurement of the particle number concentration of the
dissolved air flotation effluent
In these experiments, synthetic water, containing rates ranging from 30 to 90 m/h, RR ranging from 3% to 7%,
105 cell/mL of algae, was first pumped to the in-line static and saturator pressure of 484 kPa.
mixer, which provided rapid mixing with the optimum dose
of PACl. The coagulated water flowed to the flocculator,
which provided 5 minutes of slow mixing at a G value of Results and discussion
70 s–1. A water sample was collected from the flocculator ef-
fluent line to measure the particle number concentration The data collected from the tracer study, for different hy-
(NCZo,i) for particles of size dPi. Saturated water was injected draulic loading rates and recycle ratios, were used to gener-
into the DAF mixing column below the flocculated water ate the experimental residence time distribution (RTD)
feeding point, as shown in Fig. 6. The rising particle– bubble curves. The tracer study performed in this research gave in-
agglomerates were collected on the top of the separation formation regarding the mean residence time and degree of
tank while the clarified water exited the bottom of the sepa- mixing of water only. However, flocculated particles present
ration tank through a plastic tube connected to a level adjust- in DAF applications have density very close to that of water,
ment pipe. A water sample was collected from the DAF e.g., alum flocs density = 1.01 g/mL, and as a result particles
effluent line for particle counts and PSD analysis. The corre- would follow water streamlines. Therefore, it can be as-
sponding particle count measurements would determine the sumed that the value of tm and the degree of mixing of parti-
particle number concentration (NDAFe,i), for particle size dPi. cles inside the contact zone would be close to that of the
These experiments were performed at hydraulic loading water values.

© 2000 NRC Canada

380 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 27, 2000

Table 4. Contact zone removal efficiency calculations.

dpi DNCZo,i DNDAF e,i rPBi dPBi UPB aggl,i dPB critical,i (DNCZo,i – DNCZ e,i*
i (mm) (particle/mL) (particle/mL) (g/mL) (mm) (m/h) (mm) DNCZe,i)1 (particle/mL)
1 1.5 48 263 30 245 0.0012 67.0 8.9 52.4 0 30 245
2 2.5 4 879 1 782 0.0012 67.0 8.9 52.4 0 1 782
3 4.0 3 526 504 0.0014 67.0 8.9 52.4 0 504
4 6.0 1 853 251 0.0019 67.0 8.9 52.4 0 251
5 8.5 658 80 0.0032 67.0 8.9 52.4 0 80
6 12.0 521 79 0.0069 67.1 8.9 52.5 0 79
7 17.0 56 26 0.0174 67.4 8.9 52.8 0 26
8 85.0 5 3 0.6784 97.1 6.0 92.5 0 3
SDNi †
8 905 2 725 0 2 725
*
DNCZe,i = DNDAFe,i – (DNCZo,i – DNCZe,i).
†
SDNi for particles of size ranging from 2 to 150 mm.

Table 5. Summary of contact zone re-
moval efficiency results.
Hydraulic
loading rate RR
(%) RCZ
(m/h)
90 7 0.952
90 3 0.694
70 7 0.881
70 3 0.593
30 7 0.642
30 3 0.317
The RTD curves were used to calculate the mean resi-
dence time (tm) for particles inside the contact zone (Leven-
spiel 1972). On the other hand, the degree of mixing of
particles inside the contact zone was determined based on
the axial dispersion model and the experimental RTD curves
(Shawwa and Smith 1998).
The tracer study results, summarized in Table 2, showed
that the mean residence time (tm) of particles inside the con-
tact zone was always larger than the contact zone hydraulic
retention time (HRT). As the hydraulic loading rate in-
creased, tm approached HRT, indicating that the flow condi-
tions inside the contact zone are approaching plug flow. On
the other hand, the results showed that Pe increased as the
hydraulic loading rate increased, i.e., the degree of mixing of
the particles decreased inside the contact zone.
The superficial liquid velocity, bubble size, and concentra-
tion, which are required for calculating the theoretical first-
order particle removal rate constants (kP), were measured us-
ing the particle dynamic analyzer (PDA) at different hydrau-
lic loading rates and recycle ratios. The results for the PDA
experiments are summarized in Table 3. All these measure-
ments were taken at a contact zone height (HCZ) of 1500 mm
and saturator pressure of 484 kPa.
Generally, the results summarized in Table 3 showed that
the mean bubble diameter (dB) decreased as the hydraulic
loading rate increased at the same recycle ratio. Also, the
mean bubble diameter decreased as the recycle ratio in-
creased at the same hydraulic loading rate. The bubble vol-
ume concentration results showed the same trends.
In addition, Table 3 summarizes the results of UL mea-
sured by the PDA instrument and hydraulic loading rate
(equivalent to the calculated UL) calculated based on the
measured Qtotal divided by the cross-sectional area of the
contact zone column. The PDA measurements were per-
formed by seeding the influent water with TiO2 while actual
flow rates were measured using the stopwatch and the
bucket method. The results indicated good agreement be-
tween calculated and measured UL. The results also indi-
cated that as Qtotal increased, i.e., as contact zone hydraulic
loading increased, the percentage difference between mea-
sured and calculated UL decreased.
To determine the particle removal efficiency for the con-
tact zone (RCZ) for algae particles, the optimum dose of the
coagulant PACl was determined, using the bench-scale DAF
unit. In these experiments, the PACl dose was varied from
0.5 to 5.0 mg/L as aluminum and there was no pH adjust-
ment after the addition of the coagulant to the synthetic wa-
ter. The synthetic water had a turbidity of 1.0 NTU and
particle concentration of 105 particles/mL. The results of
these experiments indicated that the optimum PACl dose was
in the range of 2.9 to 3.14 mg/L as aluminum. At that dose,
treated water turbidity was 0.09 NTU, a reduction of almost
92%. Also, the number concentration of the particles in the
treated water was 458 particles/mL, a reduction of 99.5% or
2.3 log reduction.
The particle removal efficiency (RCZ) experiments were
performed at different hydraulic loading rates and recycle ra-
tios using the pilot-scale DAF system. Water samples were
collected from the flocculator and the DAF effluent line to
measure particle number concentration for the flocculated
water (NCZ o,i) and DAF effluent (NDAF e,i), respectively.
Particle size distribution (PSD) of the collected samples
was generated using the Hiac/Royco particle counter. The
PSD data were presented using the number distribution
(American Public Health Association, American Water Works
Association, and Water Environment Federation 1992). The
number distribution is formed by plotting (DNi /Dlog dPi) ver-
sus log dPi, in which DNi is the particle count per milliliter in
channel i, dPi is the average particle size for channel i and
Dlog dPi is the width of the channel i. Figure 7 shows PSD for
synthetic water with algae, flocculated water, and DAF efflu-
ent water, at a hydraulic loading rate of 90 m/h and RR of 7%.
The PSD plot shows that the particles were mostly smaller
than 12 mm. Also, it shows that the number concentration of
raw water particles increased after the addition of 3 mg/L of
PACl followed by 5 minutes of flocculation.
© 2000 NRC Canada
Shawwa and Smith
Table 6. Results of comparison between theoretical and experimental kP.
Theoretical kP (min–1)
Hydraulic a PB
loading rate RR
(m/h) (%) 0.10 0.35
90 7 0.607 2.123
90 3 0.216 0.757
70 7 0.274 0.961
70 3 0.108 0.378
30 7 0.053 0.187
30 3 0.022 0.076
In all experiments, the lowest particle removal efficiencies
occurred for particles lower than 2 mm in size while the
highest was achieved for particles with dp ranging from 4 to
12 mm. This is clearly illustrated in Fig. 8, which shows par-
ticle removal efficiencies for particle size dPi, at a hydraulic
loading rate of 90 m/h and RR = 7%. This finding is in
agreement with studies performed by other researchers (Va-
lade et al. 1996) and the SCE model, where the particle re-
moval efficiency for the DAF process is proportional to dp2.
Figure 8 also shows that the particle removal efficiency for
particles of size larger than 12 mm decreased. That may be
due to fewer particles of these sizes entering the DAF con-
tact zone.
To calculate the particle removal efficiency for the contact
zone (RCZ), the number concentration (NCZ e,i) for particles
of size dPi was estimated by comparing dPBi with dPB critical,i,
for all particles of size dPi in the PSD. This was achieved by
calculating the particle–bubble agglomerates rise velocity
(UPB aggl), for each particle size (dPi), assuming one bubble
attached to the particle and by using eqs. [1] through [3].
Laminar flow conditions were verified by calculating the
particle–bubble agglomerate Reynolds number for each par-
ticle size (dPi).
In addition, the critical particle–bubble agglomerate diam-
eter (dPB critical,i) was calculated using eq. [11] and was com-
pared to the dPBi, for all particles of size dPi. Then the
number concentration fraction (NCZ o,i – NCZ e,i)1 was calcu-
lated. As a result, NCZ e,i could be calculated by subtracting
(NCZ o,i – NCZ e,i)1 from NDAF e,I, and RCZ was calculated
based on eq. [8]. Table 4 summarizes the procedures for cal-
culating the particle removal efficiency (RCZ) for one experi-
ment performed at a hydraulic loading rate of 90 m/h and RR
of 7%. The corresponding overflow rate for the DAF separa-
tion zone was 5.6 m/h.
The results of the experimental particle removal efficiency
for the contact zone (RCZ) are summarized in Table 5.
The results showed that RCZ increased as the hydraulic load-
ing rate increased at the same RR. Also, the experimental
RCZ increased as RR increased at the same hydraulic loading
rate.
The experimental removal rate constants (kP) were deter-
mined by trial and error using eq. [10] and the results in Ta-
bles 2 and 5. On the other hand, the theoretical kP values
were calculated at a PB values ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 using
eq. [6] and the results summarized in Table 3. The mean par-
ticle diameter (dP) was equal to10 mm, based on the particle
size distribution of the flocculated water sample.
381
Experimental
0.55 1.00 kP (min–1)
3.337 6.066 2.516
1.189 2.163 1.014
1.510 2.745 1.190
0.594 1.081 0.511
0.294 0.535 0.275
0.119 0.216 0.101
Table 6 summarizes the results of the comparison between
the theoretical and experimental kP values at different a PB
values, hydraulic loading rates, and recycle ratios. The re-
sults showed that the experimental value of a PB for which
both theoretical and experimental kP values were in the
range of 0.35 and 0.55. These values are within the range
typically found in DAF water treatment applications (Liers
et al. 1996).
Conclusions
In this study, a kinetic model for DAF contact zone has
been developed based on the single collector efficiency
model (SCE). The model included parameters that describe
bubble–particle transport and attachment efficiency, particle
size, bubble size and volume concentration, bubble rise ve-
locity, superficial liquid velocity, and contact zone height.
Experimental results indicated that the mean bubble size
(dB) decreased as the hydraulic loading rate and the recycle
ratio increased. Since the first-order particle removal rate
constant (kP) is proportional to dB–3, based on the kinetic
model, it was expected that kP would increase as dB de-
creased. This was confirmed by performing the pilot-scale
experiments. These experiments showed that kP increased
from 0.101 to 2.516 min–1 as dB decreased from 89.5 to
52.7 mm.
The pilot-scale experimental results also showed that the
experimental removal rate constant (kP) increased as the bub-
ble volume concentration (FB) increased. Increasing RR
from 3% to 7% at a hydraulic loading rate of 90 m/h re-
sulted in an increase of FB from 2263 to 5119 ppm. As a re-
sult, experimental kP increased from 1.014 to 2.516 min–1.
In addition, pilot-scale experiments showed that the high-
est experimental particle removal rate constant was
2.516 min–1 for experiments performed at a hydraulic load-
ing rate of 90 m/h and RR of 7%. On the other hand, the
lowest experimental kP value was 0.101 min–1 for experi-
ments performed at a hydraulic loading rate of 30 m/h and
RR of 3%.
The experimental value of a PB for the synthetic water sys-
tem investigated in this study was estimated by comparing
the theoretical removal rate constant (kP) based on the pro-
posed kinetic model and the experimental kP at different hy-
draulic loading rates and recycle ratios. The results indicated
that the value of a PB for which both theoretical and experi-
mental kP were equal was in the range of 0.35 and 0.55.
These values are within the range typically found in DAF
water treatment applications. Therefore, the model can be
© 2000 NRC Canada
 382 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 27, 2000

used to predict DAF removal efficiencies, provided that a PB Sutherland, K. 1948. Physical chemistry of flotation. Part XI: Ki-
is determined for the system under investigation and that the netics of the flotation process. Journal of Physical Chemistry,
operating conditions applied in this research are used. How- 52: 394–425.
ever, independent experiments are required to verify the ap- Valade, T., Edzwald, J., Tobiason, J., Dahlquist, J., Hedberge, T.,
plicability of the proposed model. and Amato, T. 1996. Pretreatment effects on particle removal by
flotation and filtration. Journal of American Water Works Asso-
ciation, 88(12): 35–47.
Acknowledgements Zabel, T. 1985. The advantages of dissolved air flotation for water
treatment. Journal of American Water Works Association, 77(5):
The authors would like to thank the Natural Sciences and 42–46.
Engineering Research Council of Canada for providing par-
tial funding for this project.
List of symbols
C concentration of tracer at time t
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