SPE 120473

Correlating Flowing Time and Condition for Perforation Plugging by

Suspended Particles
Tung V. Tran and Faruk Civan, SPE, University of Oklahoma, and Ian Robb, SPE, Halliburton Services

Copyright 2009, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2009 SPE Production and Operations Symposium held in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA, 4–8 April 2009.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its
officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to
reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.

Abstract
Conditions leading to plugging of perforations in wells and pore-throats in porous formations are investigated experimentally.
Accurate correlations are developed for the effect of pore-throat-to-particle-size ratio on flowing fluid conditions and
plugging time leading to particle bridging. It is demonstrated that the critical pore-throat-to-particle-size ratio vs. particle-
volume-fraction Reynolds number can be correlated satisfactorily using an exponential function and the dimensionless
plugging time vs. reciprocal-particle-volume-fraction yields an exponential-type correlation. Such empirical correlations can
be used to determine and alleviate the conditions which induce perforation and pore plugging by migrating particles in
petroleum reservoirs. These correlations reveal that the critical pore-to-particle diameter ratio below which plugging occurs
may be greater than the unit physical limit.

Introduction

Plugging of perforations in wells and pores of porous formations occur frequently during various operations of oil and gas
industry, including water flooding, drilling, perforation, and workover. Particles migrating at sufficiently high concentrations
with a particle-to-hole size ratio may form bridges across and narrow down the perforations and pore throats, reducing the
flow rate through reservoirs. This may cause severe damage to the productivity of the oil and gas wells. Hence, the
operational conditions need to be adjusted to avoid the plugging of pores and perforations by suspended particles.

The mechanism of pore throat plugging in porous formations is of interest in geotechnical engineering and the
petroleum industry. Pore throat plugging can occur by size exclusion or jamming of fine particles during fluid flow.
Migration and entrapment of fine particles during flow in petroleum reservoirs can lead to clogging and decreased oil
productivity. The pore throats control the rate of flow through the interconnected-pore space inducing a gate or valve effect
(Chang and Civan, 1991).

A wide range of parameters affecting fines migration in porous media have been analyzed in numerous studies, such
as the mean particle size, standard deviation of particle size distribution, clay concentration, rate of release coefficient,
starting pressure, tramping length, network connectivity, and the role of pH and ionic concentration (Muecke, 1979; Gaida et
2 SPE 120473

al., 1985; Cerda, 1988; Khilar and Fogler, 1998). However, there are only a few reported studies relevant to the particle
bridging phenomenon of large pores and perforations. Haynes and Gray (1974) studied the particle transport efficiency of
suspensions through sand particles packed over a perforated casing. They proposed that a low-viscosity fluid would minimize
the channeling and reduce the transport efficiency because of less drag applied on particles. Fresh water and low viscosity
brine were used for carrying the particles into the perforations. They found that the particle transport efficiency improved
with increasing flow rate and decreased with the particle size and concentration.

Muecke (1979) studied the effects of single- and multi- phase fluid flow and wettability on fine-particle movement.
Conditions leading to bridging were evaluated in terms of particle size and concentration. A monolayer of d = 200μm Pyrex
glass chips between two flat 6x8x0.5 in dimension glass plates were used to confine the sand. CaCO3 particles were injected
into a large confined sand pack. Conclusions were based on the qualitative observations. Fine particles were carried by the
wetting fluid in the multi-phase fluid system. Bridging of fines at pore throats was observed to depend on the size and
concentration of mobilized fines, and the velocity of the flowing fluid.

The effect of flow rate and pressure on the release and entrapment of fines were evaluated by Gruesbeck and Collins
(1982a). Both oil and water were tested as carrier fluids. Columns packed with sand of diameters ranging between 200-
840μm were used and dispersions of CaCO3 particles were used as fines. They investigated cases involving both dirty
injection-clean pack and clean injection-dirty pack systems. The results showed that the critical velocity required for plugging
was inversely proportional to fluid viscosity. Flow reversals caused bridge destabilization and hence temporary permeability
increase.

Baghdikian et al. (1989) investigated the transient behavior of particulate plugging of porous media. They studied
well-characterized kaolin and bentonite suspensions injected into 40/170-mesh Ottawa sand packs. Experiments were
conducted at different flow rates, pH values, ionic strengths, and particle concentrations with each clay mineral. Their studies
showed qualitative agreement between theoretical predictions and experiments. Permeability reduction occurred more rapidly
as the pH decreased and ionic strength increased. As the bentonite concentration increased, permeability reduction also
increased. Under similar conditions, kaolin caused significantly less permeability impairment than bentonite. The bridging
capability of bentonite may have been a result of two factors, namely clay swelling and surface potential change of the
particles and pore surfaces.

Valdes and Santamarina (2006) studied the interplay between various particle-level forces, the relative size between
particles and pore throat, and the spatial variability of the velocity field. They found that radial clogging evolves into a self-
stabilizing ring pattern when the pore-to-particle size radio is below the critical size ratio. Similar device was used for their
flushing studies. They observed the “finger-type” flow localization near the discharge point when particles are much smaller
than pore throats.

Ohen and Civan (1993) developed a model to account for fines migration and clay swelling during fluid flow
through porous media. An optimal parameter identification algorithm was utilized to determine the best estimates of the
system parameters using experimental data. The ionic concentration and pH effects on fines release and deposition were not
considered. The rates of particle deposition and entrainment were assumed to be governed only by the hydrodynamics.
SPE 120473 3

Chang and Civan (1991) developed a model of formation damage owing to physical and chemical interactions
between the reservoir fluids and formations. This model included the chemical reactions involving dissolution/precipitation
and ion exchange. The precipitates are considered mobile and mixed with other fine particles to contribute to pore throat
plugging. The size distribution of both precipitates and clay fines are accounted for using a bimodal distribution function. The
model parameters are determined through an optimization method by fitting with experimental data. This model showed
good agreement with experimental results. It has a broad applicability in diagnosis, evaluation, and simulation of formation
damage during drilling, production, and enhanced oil recovery (EOR) processes. It can also be used to predict the
performance of acidizing and other chemical flooding processes.

Nguyen and Civan (2005) modeled the fine particle invasion and clean-up processes using a set of equations that
describe the particle concentration and fraction of depositing particles with permeability. The porous medium is assumed to
include plugging and non-plugging pathways. This is a pore-scale model. No fracture or wormhole existence is considered.
Darcy flow conditions exist. The fluids are assumed to be incompressible and Newtonian. A transient-state one-dimensional-
space solution along the core plug is calculated. The model showed that the pore throat plugging induced an internal cake
formation at a rate proportional to the volumetric particle flux and pore volume.

Bouhroum and Civan (1995) concluded that essentially the existing gravel-pack design is based on the geometrical
retention criteria, and neglects the hydrodynamics and clogging effects. The commonly known geometrical retention criterion
is the 1/3-rule, for which the pore throat-to-particle diameter ratio is equal to 3. However, the data of Gruesbeck and Collins
(1982b) indicate that bridging can occur over a range of diameter ratios depending on the particle volume fraction of the
flowing suspension of particles and not necessarily at a fixed value of 3 as inferred by the 1/3-rule. Civan (2000) effectively
correlated their experimental data using the power- and exponential-law functions.

Iscan and Civan (2006) presented a criterion for effective plugging based on an experimental determination and
analysis of the critical conditions leading to plugging. The graphs of the perforation or pore size to particle size ratio versus
the particle-volume-fraction Reynolds number according to Civan (2000) are shown to determine the conditions leading to
perforation and pore-plugging. The experimental data obtained using three different water-based drilling fluids and several
reported experimental data are analyzed and correlated by means of the power- and exponential-law expressions. Both
approaches adequately describe the conditions leading to perforation and pore plugging.

The present experimental study investigates the main condition determining the plugging time and particle size
compared to the pore-throat size as a function of the particle-volume-fraction Reynolds number for relatively monodisperse
particles and mixtures. The experimental data obtained herein are analyzed to develop useful correlations for time and
condition of plugging of perforations by migrating suspended particles. These can be used to alleviate the field problems
affecting flow efficiency and productivity of wells completed in petroleum reservoirs.

Experimental System and Procedure

The equipment, materials, and procedure utilized in the present investigation are described in the following.
4 SPE 120473

Equipment

The experimental equipment (Figure 1) used in the present studies consists of three major parts: (1) the fluid driving system,
that is a 2000 psig nitrogen tank equipped with a pressure regulator, (2) the transparent-plastic testing cell equipped with
different sizes of perforations, and (3) a data acquisition system used to record the fluid weight and pressure in the testing
cell. The experiments were conducted at ambient room conditions.

Materials

The fluids used in the perforation plugging studies were brine and Geovis XT fluid (from C.P. Kelco Inc). The compositions
and properties of the fluids are provided in Table 1. The particles used in the brine fluid system were spherical nylon particles
having a density of 1.13 g/cm3 having diameters of 0.16, 0.24, 0.32, and 0.48 cm. The particles used in the Geovis XT fluid
system were 20/40 mesh, 30/50 mesh, and 30/70 mesh ceramic proppants having a density of 2.72 g/cm3 (from Carbo
Ceramics). The apparent viscosity of the Geovis XT fluids measured at 75oF ranged from 15 to 100 cP (at shear rate of 511 s-
1
) is sufficient to create a stable suspension of proppant in the system, accomplished by dissolving different weights of
Geovis XT powder in 250 ml of water. The suitable fluid viscosity was chosen as 31 cP ensuring that the fluid effectively
suspends the particles and flows easily under various test conditions considered here. For the brine and nylon particle system,
NaCl was added into the system so that the density of brine could be equalized to the density of the nylon particles. This is to
avoid any particle settling or buoyancy affects.

Procedure

The experiments were conducted at different flow rates, perforation-to-particle size ratios, fluid viscosities, and particle
concentrations of each material. The effect of each of these parameters on the plugging condition was evaluated. The particle
concentration was varied from 0.03 g/cm3 to 1.92 g/cm3 of fluid, corresponding to 0.01 to 0.40 volume fraction. The
dimensionless Particle-Volume-Fraction Reynolds number (defined later in the following) varied from 0.1 to 950, and flow
was thus laminar in terms of the pipe flow Reynolds number criteria. The diameter of the perforation was varied from 0.16 to
0.64 cm by installing plastic plates having different hole-sizes at the bottom of the testing tube (Figure 2).

The particles were thoroughly mixed with fluid at the desired concentration and vacuum was applied to remove
entrapped air bubbles before placing the particle-suspension into the test cell. The flow rate was adjusted via the pressure
applied from the nitrogen tank. After placing the fluid (particle suspension) sample into the test cell, the nitrogen tank valve
was opened while keeping the bottom valve closed until the pressure in the cell has been stabilized. Then, fluid flow was
initiated by opening the bottom valve. The plugging/pass response of the hole was established for the specific perforation size
to particle size ratio and particle concentration. Each test was repeated ten times to check the reproducibility. The weight of
sample transported through a perforation was collected and measured in a graduated cone at every second. The weight of
collected sample was plotted against time to determine the plugging time for each case. The plugging time was defined as the
moment when the slope of the cumulative fluid volume vs. time curve changed significantly.
SPE 120473 5

Data Analysis and Correlation

In the following, the present experimental data are analyzed to determine the plugging conditions and time, and the effect of
coarse-fine particle mixtures.

Perforation Plugging Conditions

Typical results determining whether the plugging happened during various tests are shown in Figure 3. A change in slope
indicates plugging. The measured weight of the collected sample is plotted against time for the flow of the suspension of
20/40 mesh Carbo proppant through a perforation of diameter 0.24 cm. The maximum particle concentration that could be
transported through a perforation without plugging was approximately 1.2 % by volume for this particular test. When the
solid volume fraction was increased to 1.6 %, there was a decline in the slope after 24 seconds, indicating that the perforation
was plugged.

The experimental data were correlated using two dimensionless variables according to Civan (2000, 2007),
determining the condition leading to plugging of the perforation. The first dimensionless variable is the pore-to-particle
diameter ratio β = DT/Dp. The second dimensionless variable is a dimensionless group of variables, referred to as the Particle-
Volume-Fraction Reynolds number Rep = ρpσpvDp/μ, where ρp is the particle density, σp is the particle volume fraction, v is
velocity of the particles (assumed to be the same as the suspension velocity, neglecting any slip effect), μ is the fluid
viscosity, DT is the average pore diameter, and Dp is the volumetrically-weighed average particle diameter defined as:

∑σ ( D ) i p i

(D )p avg = i =1
n
---------------------------------------------------------------------------(1)
∑σ
i =1
i

where σi is the volume fraction of particle i, and (Dp)i is the diameter of particle i.

The occurrence of plugging/bridging at certain fluid-particle conditions was determined by the following
exponential-law equation, given by Civan (2000, 2007):

β = A ⎡⎣1 − exp ( − B Re p ) ⎤⎦ + C -------------------------------------------------------------------(2)

The values of the empirical fitting parameters A, B, and C for the present experimental data were determined as shown in
Table 2. Equation 2 implies that the lower-limit value of β is equal to C for Rep = 0 and β attains an upper-limit value of

(A+C) as Re p → ∞ . We also tried the power-law equation, given by Civan (2000, 2007), but found it to be less accurate
than the exponential-law.

The physical limit on the coefficient C in equation (2) is unity. However, Iscan and Civan (2006) indicated that the
value of C might be greater than 1.0 because other factors, such as fluid viscosity, surface forces, and inertial retardation,
might prevent a single particle moving through a pore throat even if the particle size is less than the pore throat size. We
6 SPE 120473

developed the correlations for the plugging conditions with and without enforcing the limiting value of C = 1.0. The fitting
coefficients are presented in Table 2. The results showed that higher regression coefficients were achieved when C was
determined for best fit of the experimental data instead of setting its value as C = 1.0.

Figures 4 shows the correlation fitting using these two models for the nylon particles (diameter of 0.16, 32, and 0.48
cm) in brine. The test was repeated with relatively monodisperse particles, mixtures of two and three different particles of
various ratios (1:3, 1:1, 3:1- of big-small particles, 1:1:4, 1:2:4, 4:1:1, 4:2:1) to explore a wide range of plugging conditions.
Nylon particles were mixed with brine of equal density, ρf = ρp, to create a stable suspension. The region below the fitted
curve indicates the conditions for plugging whereas the region above it indicates the non-plugging conditions. The
exponential model works very well for these experimental data with high regression coefficients of R2 = 0.91 for C = 1 and R2
= 0.95 for C ≠ 1. This model is concentration sensitive for low β (1< β < 1.5) as a small change in particle concentration will
shift the position from the non-plugging region to the plugging region. Bridging inside a perforation occurs even at low
particle concentration as the pore throat to particle diameter ratio approaches 1. For β > 2, the critical concentration for
bridging increased dramatically because the probability of the particles approaching the perforation “simultaneously” to form
a bridge was very small at such concentrations. However, when β > 3, no plugging occurs over the range of 0 < Rep < 1000
even at a particle concentration of 1.92 g (0.40 volume fraction), as seen in the region above the curve in Figure 4).

Similar results were observed for the Carbo proppant in Geovis XT fluid. The exponential-law model works well to
determine the fitting parameters of the plugging conditions. The regression coefficients R2 were 0.98 for C = 1 and 0.99 for C
≠ 1. Figure 5 is for determination of the particle bridging conditions. The stable bridge was observed for 1< β < 5 with
Carbo proppants and no bridge was formed for β > 5.0 over the range of 0 < Rep < 5, even at high particle concentrations. In
the field, engineers are more interested in the operation condition under constant flow rate or constant particle volume
fraction in the flowing fluid. Figures 6 and 7 show the bridging condition curves under constant flow rate and constant
particle volume fraction, respectively.

Plugging Time

Perforation and pore-throat plugging do not happen instantaneously as attested by the experimental data presented in Figure
1. There is some retardation effect delaying the jamming process. Time for plugging depends primarily on the probability of
more than one particle arriving at the pore throat at any time and gets shorter as the particle volume goes up. This is
confirmed in Figure 8 showing the plot of the dimensionless pore throat plugging time (defined in Equation 3) versus particle
volume fraction. The experimental data presented in Figure 8 were obtained using 31 cP Geovis XT fluid and the Carbo
proppant with diameter of 0.07 cm. The pore throat-to-particle diameter ratio was 2.5. The tests were run at the constant flow
rate of 4.25 cm3/s. As demonstrated in Figure 8, the dimensionless plugging time td can be correlated successfully by an
exponential function of the reciprocal-particle volume fraction σp:

( )
t d = a exp σ p− b -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(3)

where a and b are the model fitting parameters. The dimensionless pore throat plugging time is defined as:
SPE 120473 7

t
td = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4)
v DT D p

where t is the time elapsed until bridge formation, and the other variables were defined above. The empirical parameters for
the exponential function for the plugging time are presented in Table 2.

Coarse-fine Particle Mixtures

A mixture of coarse and fine particles was prepared to investigate the effect of particle size distribution on the plugging time.
The two particle sizes used had diameters of 0.02 and 0.07 cm and the perforation diameter was 0.20 cm. The fine particles
did not have significant impact on plugging time in the mixture. As shown in the Figure 9, the plugging time for different fine
particle concentrations did not change significantly compared to the plugging time for the monodisperse coarse particle (0.0
g/cm3 of fine particle). After plugging occurred (required about 9 to 10 seconds), the slope was smaller as fine particles were
added into the mixture. Once the bridge is formed by coarse particles, it acts as increasingly effective traps for the flowing
particles. The fine particles continue depositing at the bridge and act as a membrane, retarding fluid from flowing out.

Conclusions

On the basis of the studies conducted here, the following conclusions may be drawn:

1. The empirical correlations developed in this study may be instrumental in determining the pore/perforation plugging
conditions during flow of suspension of spherical particles. Thus, conditions causing perforation and pore plugging
by migrating particles may be avoided in the field based on these correlations.

2. To prevent plugging, the ratio of perforation diameter to average particle diameter versus Particle-Volume-Fraction
Reynolds number (Rep) should fall within the region above the correlated curve using the exponential-law
expression. It becomes obvious that the 1/3-rule strictly applies only under limited conditions of volume fraction of
solids and flow rates and is not adequate for general applications.

3. The use of the dimensionless Particle-Volume-Fraction Reynolds number (Rep) is convenient because it represents
the essential fluid characteristics, i.e. density, viscosity, and flow rate, to provide a criterion for determining the
conditions leading to plugging. Obviously, the effect of temperature and pressure is implicitly included through the
physical properties involving the Particle-Volume-Fraction Reynolds number (Rep).

4. As flow rate increases, the Particle-Volume-Fraction Reynolds number (Rep) increases. Thus, the prevailing fluid
condition may shift from the non-plugging towards plugging regions.

5. The associated plugging time varies with the volume of particles contained within the suspension of particles. When
conditions are appropriate for plugging, the higher the volume fraction, the shorter the plugging time becomes. The
dimensionless plugging time vs. reciprocal-particle-volume-fraction yields an exponential-type correlation. This
correlation helps estimation of time required for the plugging to occur.
8 SPE 120473

6. The conclusion of Iscan and Civan (2006) that the lower-limit value of the critical pore-to-particle diameter ratio
below which plugging occurs may exceed the physical limit of 1.0 was reconfirmed. Further study is recommended
to investigate how relevant factors affect this condition.

Nomenclature

a, b empirical parameters for Equation 3

A, B, C empirical parameters for Equation 2

cp particle mass concentration, g/cm3

Dp average particle diameter, cm

DT perforation or pore diameter, cm

v velocity of the suspension, cm/s

Rep Particle-Volume-Fraction Reynolds number

t the time elapsed until bridge formation, s

td dimensionless plugging time

Greek Symbols

μ viscosity of the fluid, cP

ρ average fluid density, g/cm3

ρf fluid mass density, g/cm3

ρp particle mass density, g/cm3

σp particle volume fraction

β pore-to-particle diameter ratio

Preferences

Baghdikian, S.Y., Sharma, M.M., and Handy, L.L. 1987. Flow of Clay Suspensions through Porous Media. Journal of the
Society of Petroleum Engineers, SPE 16257.
SPE 120473 9

Bouhroum, A. and Civan, F. 1995. A Critical Review of Existing Gravel-Pack Design Criteria, J. Canadian Petroleum
Technology, 34 (1), pp. 35-40.

Cerda, C.M. 1988. Mobilization of Quartz Fines in Porous Media. Clays and Clay Minerals, 36: 491-497.

Chang, F. and Civan, F. 1991. Modeling of Formation Damage Due to Physical and Chemical Interactions between Fluids
and Reservoir Rocks. Paper SPE 22856 presented at SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, 6-9 October
1991, Dallas, Texas.

Civan, F. 2000. Reservoir Formation Damage- Fundamentals, Modeling, Assessment, and Mitigation, Gulf Pub. Co.,
Houston, TX, 742p.

Civan, F. 2007. Reservoir Formation Damage- Fundamentals, Modeling, Assessment, and Mitigation, Second Edition,
Elsevier, Gulf Professional Pub., Burlington, MA, 1114p.

Gaida, K.H., Kessel, H.V., Zimmerle, W. 1985. Geological Parameters of Reservoir Sandstones as Applied to Enhance Oil
Recovery. Proceedings of International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry, SPE 13570, Phoenix, AZ, April 9-11: 219-
229.

Gruesbeck, C. and Collins, E. 1982a. Entrapment and Deposition of Fine Particles in Porous Media. Journal of the Society
of Petroleum Engineers: 847-856.

Gruesbeck, C. and Collins, E. 1982b. Particle Transport through Perforations. Journal of the Society of Petroleum
Engineers: 857-865.

Haynes, C.D. and Gray, K.E. 1974. Sand particle transport in perforated casing. Journal of Petroleum Technology, 26 (1):
80-84.

Iscan, A.G. and Civan, F. 2006. Correlation of Criteria for Perforation and Pore Plugging by Particles. Journal of Porous
Media, 9 (6): 541-558.

Khilar, K.C. and Fogler, H.S. 1998. Migration of Fines in Porous Media, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 171.

Muecke, T.W. 1979. Formation Fines and Factors Controlling Their Movement in Porous Media. Journal of Petroleum
Technology, 31: 144-150.

Nguyen, V. and Civan, F. 2005. Modeling particle migration and deposition in porous media by parallel pathways with
exchange. Chapter 11, Handbook of Porous Media, Second Edition, Vafai, K. (Ed), CRC Press, Taylor and Francis
Group, Boca Raton, FL: 457-484.

Ohen, H.A. and Civan, F. 1993. Simulation of Formation Damage in Petroleum Reservoirs. SPE Advanced Technology
Series, 1 (1): 27-35.

Valdes, J.R. and Santamarina, C.J. 2006. Particle Clogging in Radial Flow: Microscale Mechanisms. Journal of Society of
Petroleum Engineers: 193-198.
10 SPE 120473

Table 1: Fluids and properties

Density, Perforation
Fluids Additives Composition
sizes, cm
g/cm3

0.32
Water + Salt Water = 50 ml
Saline Water 1.13 0.46
Viscosity = 1.1 cP NaCl = 1.76 g
0.64

0.16
Water + Geovis XT
Geovis XT Water = 250 ml
Viscosity = 31.0 cP at 511 1.05 0.20
Fluid
Geovis XT = 2.50 g
s-1 shear rate
0.24
SPE 120473 11

Table 2: Best-estimate parameter values

Exponential function Equation 2 with enforcing C = 1

Fluid A B C R2

Brine 1.77 0.011 1.00 0.91

Geovis XT (all data points) 3.34 0.69 1.00 0.98

Geovis XT (under constant flow rate condition) 3.49 0.67 1.00 0.99

Geovis XT (under constant particle volume

2.70 1.13 1.00 1.00
fraction condition)

Exponential function Equation 2 without enforcing C = 1

Fluid A B C R2

Brine 1.58 0.0062 1.35 0.95

Geovis XT (all data points) 3.27 0.47 1.39 0.99

Geovis XT (under constant flow rate condition) 3.77 0.27 1.70 1.00

Geovis XT (under constant particle volume

2.68 1.09 1.03 1.00
fraction condition)

Exponential function Equation 3

a b R2

31 cP Geovis XT 75.63 0.25 0.98

12 SPE 120473

Pressure
gage

Computer-

Nitrogen tank
assisted
data

Suspension
of particles
acquisition
system

DT

Graduated
cylinder Effluent
Digital scale

Figure 1: Experimental Apparatus

Cylindrical Cell

Pore Throat
DT 61 mm

Plastic plate

Figure 2: Bottom of the test cell.

SPE 120473 13

30 0
S olid V o lum e F rac tio n

Cummulative weight of effluent (g)

0.9 % 2.0 %
25 0
1.2 % 2.3 %
1.6 % 3.0 %
20 0

15 0

10 0

50

0
0 50 10 0 15 0 20 0 25 0

F low in g tim e (s )

Figure 3: Typical result of the measured weight versus time for 20/40 mesh Carbo proppant with Geovis
XT fluid.
4.0
β = 1.58[1 - exp(-0.006 2R e )] + 1.3 5
Pore throat-to-throat diameter ratio,

p
2
R = 0.95
3.0
p
β = D /D

β = 1.77[1 - exp(-0.011 R e )] + 1.0 0

T

2.0 p
2
R = 0.91

u nifo rm p artic le
1.0 m ixture of 2 p a rtic le sizes
m ixture of 3 p a rtic le sizes
C alcula ted

0.0
0 20 0 400 60 0 80 0 10 00
P article-V olum e-F ractio n R eyno ld s n um ber, R e
p

Figure 4: Exponential law model for mixture of nylon particles in brine under constant flow rate of 8 cm3/s.
14 SPE 120473

6 .0
β = 3 .3 4 [ 1 - e x p ( - 0 .6 9 R e ) ] + 1 .0 0

Pore throat-to-particle diameter ratio,

p
5 .0 R
2
= 0 .9 8

4 .0
p
β = D /D
T

3 .0

β = 3 .2 7 [ 1 - e x p ( - 0 . 4 7 R e )] + 1 .3 9
2 .0 p
2
R = 0 .9 9
1 .0 E x p e r im e n t a l
C a lc u la t e d
0 .0
0 1 2 3 4 5
P a r tic le -V o lu m e - F r a c tio n R e y n o ld s n u m b e r , R e
p

Figure 5: Exponential law model for mixture of Carbo proppants in Geovis XT fluid for all data points.
6.0
β = 3.49 [1 - ex p (-0.67 R e )] + 1.0 0
Pore throat-to-particle diameter ratio,

p
5.0 2
R = 0.99

4.0
p
β = D /D
T

3.0

β = 3 .77 [1 - ex p (-0 .27 R e )] + 1.7 0

p
2.0
2
R = 1.00

1.0 E xp erim en tal (co n sta n t ve loc ity)

C alc ula te d
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5
P article-V o lu m e-Fra ctio n R e yn old s n u m b er, R e
p

Figure 6: Exponential law model for mixture of Carbo proppants in Geovis XT fluid under constant flow
rate of 4.25 cm3/s.
SPE 120473 15

5.0
β = 2.68[1 - exp(-1.09Re )] + 1.03

Pore throat-to-particle diameter ratio,

p
2
4.0 R = 1.00

β = D /D
p
T 3.0

β = 2.70[1 - exp(-1.13Re )] + 1.00

p
2.0 2
R = 1.00

1.0 Experimental
Calculated

0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Particle-Volume-Fraction Reynolds number, Re
p

Figure 7: Exponential law model for mixture of Carbo proppants in Geovis XT fluid under constant particle
volume fraction of 0.07.
800
d
Dimensionless plugging time, t

600 -0.25
t = 75.63exp(σ )
d p
2
R = 0.98
400

200
Pore throat particle diameter ratio β = 2.5
31 cP Geovis XT fluid

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Particle volume fraction, σ

p

Figure 8: Effect of particle concentration on the plugging time under condition of constant flow rate of
4.25 cm3/s.
16 SPE 120473

100
D /D = 3.5
coarse fine
Coarse particle concentration:
80 3
Total particle weight, g 0.30 g/cm (0.09 Vol. Fraction)

60

40
Fine particle concentration

3
0.0 g/cm
3
20 0.05 g/cm (0.018 Vol. Fraction)
3
0.10 g/cm (0.035 Vol. Fraction)
3
0.20 g/cm (0.069 Vol. Fraction)
0
0 5 10 15 20
Flowing time, s
Figure 9: Effect of fine particle on plugging time in the mixture.