Professional Documents
Culture Documents
In
Civil Engineering
To the
Rajasthan Technical
University, Kota
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Content
1.
PWD Introduction
4. Material
5. Tests
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6.3 Form work
6.5 Joints
6.7 Compaction
6.9 Curing
6.11 Edging
7 Reference
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PWD Introduction
The Public Works Department has a glorious history in the
development of the state since pre independence. The
department is mainly entrusted with construction and
maintenance of Roads, Bridges and Govt. buildings. The
department also acts as Technical Advisor to the State
Government in these matters.
Initially, Irrigation, Public Health engineering were units of
PWD. Subsequently these units were given separate entities to
handle increased scope of work in the respective field. Since
the inception of the Department, it has strived through its
continuous quest for excellence and putting milestones in the
feat of Engineering. It is this time that the Department is
treading into a new era of information technology to keep pace
with the modernization. The Public Works Department being
the oldest engineering department of the State, has its well
woven network even below tensile level which enables the
P.W.D. to ensure the execution of a variety of jobs/tasks any
where in the state.
Total road length being maintained by the department is more
than 87500 KM the Department also maintains State buildings
all over Rajasthan & outside. The current annual budget
allocation to the department for construction & maintenance
activities is over Rs 1000 Crores.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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Introduction
Point of view geographic and population of the state is the
nation's largest state. State Industrial, economic and social
development of the state and the population of each village is
absolutely necessary to re-connect to the main roads. In
addition to state important national roads, state roads and
district roads and their proper broad be made to improve the
quality of traffic point of view is of particular importance. Public
Works Department to build roads and improve connectivity in
rural zones, Other District Road and State broad and
improvement of rural roads and main routes narrow
construction of zones and depleted bridges brides
reconstruction of the bases are transacted on a priority basis .
Also under PradhanMantri Gram SadakYojana and pre-
fabricated construction of rural roads linking the work of other
district roads broad Suddikrn the scale bases are edited.
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About Road
A road is a thoroughfare, route, or way on land between
two places, which has been paved or otherwise improved to
allow travel by some conveyance, including a horse, cart,
or motor vehicle. Roads consist of one, or sometimes
two, roadways (carriageways) each with one or more lanes and
also any associated sidewalks (British English: pavement)
and road verges. Roads that are available for use by the public
may be referred to as public roads or highways.
MATERIAL
Concrete is widely used in domestic, commercial, recreational,
rural and educational construction.
Communities around the world rely on concrete as a safe, strong
and simple building material. It is used in all types of
construction; from domestic work to multi-storey office blocks
and shopping complexes.
Despite the common usage of concrete, few people are aware of
the considerations involved in designing strong, durable, high
quality concrete.
There are mainly three types-
1-Cement
2-Sand
3-Aggregate
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Cement
A cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens
independently, and can bind other materials together. The word
"cement" traces to the Romans, who used the
term caementiciumto describe masonry resembling
modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with
burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and
pulverized brick additives that were added to the burnt lime to
obtain a hydraulic binder were later referred to as cementum,
cimentum, cement, and cement.
Cements used in construction can be characterized as being
either hydraulic or non-hydraulic. Hydraulic cements
(e.g., Portland cement) harden because of hydration, a chemical
reaction between the anhydrous cement powder and water.
Thus, they can harden underwater or when constantly exposed
to wet weather. The chemical reaction results in hydrates that
are not very water-soluble and so are quite durable in water.
Non-hydraulic cements do not harden underwater; for example,
slaked limes harden by reaction with atmospheric carbon
dioxide.
The most important uses of cement are as an ingredient in the
production of mortar in masonry, and of concrete, a combination
of cement and an aggregate to form a strong building material.
Types of Cement:-
Portland cement
Portland cement is by far the most common type of cement in
general use around the world. This cement is made by
heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with small quantities of
other materials (such as clay) to 1450 °C in a kiln, in a process
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known as calcination, whereby a molecule of carbon dioxide is
liberated from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide, or
quicklime, which is then blended with the other materials that
have been included in the mix. The resulting hard substance,
called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount
of gypsum into a powder to make 'Ordinary Portland Cement',
the most commonly used type of cement (often referred to as
OPC). Portland cement is a basic ingredient
of concrete, mortar and most non-specialty grout. The most
common use for Portland cement is in the production of
concrete. Concrete is a composite material consisting
of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a
construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape
desired, and once hardened, can become a structural (load
bearing) element. Portland cement may be grey or white.
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Portland pozzolan cement
Its includes fly ash cement, since fly ash is a pozzolan , but also
includes cements made from other natural or artificial
pozzolans. In countries where volcanic ashes are available.
Sand
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of
finely divided rock and mineral particles. The composition of
sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources and
conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland
continental settings and non-tropical coastal settings
is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz.
The second most common type of sand is calcium carbonate, for
example aragonite, which has mostly been created, over the past
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half billion years, by various forms of life,
like coral and shellfish. It is, for example, the primary form of
sand apparent in areas where reefs have dominated the
ecosystem for millions of years like the Caribbean.
Composition
In terms of particle size as used by geologists, sand particles
range in diameter from 0.0625 mm (or 1⁄16 mm) to 2 mm. An
individual particle in this range size is termed a sand grain.
Sand grains are between gravel (with particles ranging from
2 mm up to 64 mm) and silt (particles smaller than 0.0625 mm
down to 0.004 mm). The size specification between sand and
gravel has remained constant for more than a century, but
particle diameters as small as 0.02 mm were considered sand
under the Alter berg standard in use during the early 20th
century. A 1953 engineering standard published by
the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials set the minimum sand size at 0.074 mm.
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Aggregate
Aggregates are inert granular materials such as sand, gravel, or
crushed stone that, along with water and Portland cement, are an
essential ingredient in concrete. For a good concrete mix,
aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong particles free of
absorbed chemicals or coatings of clay and other fine materials
that could cause the deterioration of concrete.
Aggregates, which account for 60 to 75 percent of the total
volume of concrete, are divided into two distinct categories-fine
and coarse. Fine aggregates generally consist of natural sand or
crushed stone with most particles passing through a 3/8-inch
(9.5-mm) sieve.
Coarse aggregates are any particles greater than 0.19 inch (4.75
mm), but generally range between 3/8 and 1.5 inches (9.5 mm to
37.5 mm) in diameter. Gravels constitute the majority of coarse
aggregate used in concrete with crushed stone making up most
of the remainder.
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Natural gravel and sand are usually dug or dredged from a pit,
river, lake, or seabed. Crushed aggregate is produced by
crushing quarry rock, boulders, cobbles, or large-size gravel.
Recycled concrete is a viable source of aggregate and has been
satisfactorily used in granular subbases, soil-cement, and in new
concrete. Aggregate processing consists of crushing, screening,
and washing the aggregate to obtain proper cleanliness and
gradation. If necessary, a benefaction process such as jigging or
heavy media separation can be used to upgrade the quality.
grading
durability
particle shape and surface texture
abrasion and skid resistance
unit weights and voids
absorption and surface moisture
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Shape and size
Particle shape and surface texture influence the properties of
freshly mixed concrete more than the properties of hardened
concrete. Rough-textured, angular, and elongated particles
require more water to produce workable concrete than smooth,
rounded compact aggregate. Consequently, the cement content
must also be increased to maintain the water-cement ratio.
Generally, flat and elongated particles are avoided or are limited
to about 15 percent by weight of the total aggregate.
Unit-weight measures the volume that graded aggregate and the
voids between them will occupy in concrete. The void content
between particles affects the amount of cement paste required
for the mix.
Angular aggregate increase the void content. Larger sizes of
well-graded aggregate and improved grading decrease the void
content. Absorption and surface moisture of aggregate are
measured when selecting aggregate because the internal
structure of aggregate is made up of solid material and voids
that may or may not contain water.
The amount of water in the concrete mixture must be adjusted to
include the moisture conditions of the aggregate. Abrasion and
skid resistance of an aggregate are essential when the aggregate
is to be used in concrete constantly subject to abrasion as in
heavy-duty floors or pavements.
Different minerals in the aggregate wear and polish at different
rates. Harder aggregate can be selected in highly abrasive
conditions to minimize wear.
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Test
There are four main tests to be done on concrete:
2-Compression Test
3-Impact Test
4-Cube Test
Equipments
Standard slump cone (100 mm top diameter x 200 mm bottom
diameter x 300 mm high)
Small scoop
Bullet-nosed rod
(600 mm long x 16 mm diameter )
Rule
Slump plate (500 mm x 500 mm)
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Method
1. Clean the cone:-Dampen with water and place on the
slump plate. The slump plate should be clean,frim level
and non-absorbent.
2. Collect sample.
3. Stand frimly on the footpieces fill 1/3 the volume of cone
with the sample. Compact the concrete by ‘roddind’25
times. Rodding Rodding means to push a steel
rod in and out of the concrete to compact it into the
cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a definite
pattern,working from outside into the middle.
4. Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times,just into the top of
the first layer
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5. Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the
top of the second layer. Top up the cone till it overflows.
6. Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling
action. Clean any concrete from around the base and top
of the cone ,push down on the handles and step off the
footpieces.
8. Turn the cone upside and place the rod across the up-turned
cone.
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THE COMPRESSION TEST
The compression test shows the compressive strength of
hardened concrete. The testing is done in a laboratory off-site.
The only work done on-site is to make a concrete cylinder for
the compression test.
Tools
Cylinders (100 mm diameter x 200 mm high or 150 mm
diameter x 300 mm high)
( The small cylinders are
normally used for most
testing due to their
lighter weight )
Small scoop
Steel float
Steel plate
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Method
1 Clean the cylinder mould and coat the inside
lightly with form oil, then place on a clean, level
and firm surface, ie the steel plate.
2 Collect a sample.
1 2 3
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6. Cap , clearly tag the cylinder and put it in cool dry place to
set for at least 24 hours.(2)
Impact Testing :-
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CubeTest:-
Test applied to the concrete, this
is the utmost important which
gives an idea about all the
characteristics of concrete. By
this single test one judge that
whether Concreting has been
done properly or not. For cube test two types of specimens either
cubes of 15 cm X 15 cm X 15 cm or 10cm X 10 cm x 10 cm
depending upon the size of aggregate are used. For most of the works
cubical moulds of size 15 cm x 15cm x 15 cm are commonly used.
APPARATUS:-
The proportion and material for making these test specimens are
from the same concrete used in the field.
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SPECIMEN:-
MIXING:-
HAND MIXING:-
(ii)Add the coarse aggregate and mix with cement and fine
aggregate until the coarse aggregate is uniformly distributed
throughout the batch
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PRECAUTIONS:-
The water for curing should be tested every 7days and the
temperature of water must be at 27+-2oC.
PROCEDURE:-
(I) Remove the specimen from water after specified curing time
and wipe out excess water from the surface.
(VIII) Record the maximum load and note any unusual features
in the type of failure.
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There some Point to construct the road:-
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1. Preparation of base
2. Form working
3. Preparation of subgrade
4. Watering of base
5. Joints
7. Compaction
8. Finishing of surface
8A. Floating
8B. Belting
8C. Brooming
9. Curing
11. Edging
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1. Preparation of subgrade:-
1. Rolling on sub grade by roller
2. Filling the granular soil in the weak part and pot holes
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2. Preparation of base:-
1. W.B.M. base
1. Stabilization soil
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3. Form work
Material for form work-
4. Watering of base:-
If base is dry
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5.Joints:-
Where is necessary to provide transverse, Longitudinal
joints; there wedge of woods, metals fix on level of concrete.
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2. Continuous mixer-
Continuous mixer used for large construction .
if distance is more from site , mix concrete transported at
site within setting time.
Two methods generally used in placing of concrete-
1. Alternate bay method-
Placed the concrete on both side of road
alternatively like as1,3,5… part at one side and 2,4,6…
part other side .
1st side
2nd side
This method have slow process due to road traffic
problems.
2. Continuous bay method-
construct one side of road regularly, if completed some
part of first side than construct other side.
this method have fast process without no obstruction of
traffic
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7. Compaction:-
Purpose of compaction is that to pull out air from void
and make concrete harden.
Compaction done by-
1.mechanically surface vibrator
2. manuallyhand tempers
8. Finishing of surface:-
1.Floating:-
For levelling the surface use floating, scree-ding , power
trowel. So that there is no acceptable more than 3mm
variation in concrete level surface.
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2.Belting-
For making surface clean used belting process. Belt is
nothing but a 15-30cm thick sheets of canvass which have
more length than road.
3. Brooming-
Brooming is the process in which we made rough surface
parallel to road by brush.
It useful in avoiding slip & comfortable travelling on road
The depth of line on road no more than 1.5mm.
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9.Curing:-
Curing is the name of increasing the hydration process
of cement.
After setting the concrete , curing process done till 14-
28days.
Some method of curing are-
1.Shading concrete works
2. Covering with hessian & gunny bags
3. Sprinkling of water
4.By ponding
5. Membrane curing
6. Steam curing
After drying road, clean the joints and fill the shelling
compound or hot bitumen .
also bitumen fill road bank.
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11. Edging:-
12.open to traffic:-
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Reference
www.Google.com
www.concrete.net.au
www.res.gov.in
www.upjl.com
www.concrete.com
www.sand.uk
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CONCLUSION
I have complete my practical training of 60 days from Public Work
Department BARMER(Raj.). This experience was useful and enjoy to me.
During training period we have know the difference the book knowledge
and field work. The field work is totally different from book.It was very
good and a helpful for my study course. The training will be very helpful
for my coming life.It gives me a just idea of the practically work,which
was based on my course.At the site we various techniques of Road . I
learn how can we apply theory in terms of practical. I observed my
problems and difficulties in the field. I felt that theories or studies
cannot provide us knowledge of all aspect of learning subjects is in
complete units it exposed to its practical knowledge, where practical
application makes us agile and competent.
I come to know how to manage the work the material collection from
various instalments,their appropriate selection and quality. I observed
the various precautions, which are necessary during construction.
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