UNIT – II

1 a) Explain Goodman’s and Soderberg’s equation for combination stresses. 4M

Ans. A straight line connecting the endurance limit and the ultimate strength , as shown by line AB
in Fig. 6.16, follows the suggestion of Goodman. A Goodman line is used when the design is
based on ultimate strength and may be used for ductile or brittle materials.

A straight line connecting the endurance limit and the yield strength, as shown by the line AB
in Fig. 6.17, follows the suggestion of Soderberg line. This line is used when the design is
based on yield strength.
1 b) Find the maximum stress induced in the following cases taking stress 6M
concentration into account: A rectangular plate 60 mm × 10 mm with a
hole 12 diameter as shown in Fig. and subjected to a tensile load of 12 kN.

Ans.

2 Explain stress concentration in detail and various methods to reduce stress 10

concentration in machine members M

Ans. STRESS CONCENTRATION

Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its cross-section, the
simple stress distribution no longer holds good and the neighborhood of the
discontinuity is different. This irregularity in the stress distribution caused by
abrupt changes of form is called stress concentration. It occurs for all kinds of
stresses in the presence of fillets, notches, holes, keyways, splines, surface
roughness or scratches etc.

Stress concentration is defined as the localization of high stresses due to the

irregularities present in the component and abrupt changes of the cross section.

Consider a member with different cross-section under a tensile load as shown

in Fig. 6.5. A little consideration will show that the nominal stress in the right
and left hand sides will be uniform but in the region where the cross-section is
changing, a re-distribution of the force within the member must take place. The
material near the edges is stressed considerably higher than the average value.
The maximum stress occurs at some point on the fillet and is directed parallel
to the boundary at that point.

In order to consider the effect of stress concentration and find out localized
stresses, a factor called stress concentration factor is used. It is denoted by Kt
and defined as,

Max. Stress
Kt = ---------------------------------
Nominal Stress

REDUCTION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION

Although it is not possible to completely eliminate the effect of stress
concentration, there are methods to reduce stress concentrations. This is
achieved by providing a specifi c geometric shape to the component. In order
to know what happens at the abrupt change of cross-section or at the
discontinuity and reduce the stress concentration, understanding of flow
analogy is useful. There is a similarity between velocity distribution in fl uid
flow in a channel and the stress distribution in an axially loaded plate shown in
Fig

In practice, reduction of stress concentration is achieved by the following

methods:
(i) Additional Notches and Holes in Tension Member
A flat plate with a V-notch subjected to tensile force is shown in
Fig. 5.9(a). It is observed that a single notch results in a high degree
of stress concentration. The severity of stress concentration is
reduced by three methods: (a) use of multiple notches; (b) drilling
additional holes; and (c) removal of undesired material. These
methods are illustrated in Fig. 5.9(b), (c) and (d) respectively. The
 method of removing undesired material is called the principle of
minimization of the material. In these three methods, the sharp
bending of a force fl ow line is reduced and it follows a smooth
curve

(ii) Fillet Radius, Undercutting and Notch for Member in Bending

A bar of circular cross-section with a shoulder and subjected to
bending moment is shown in Fig. 5.10(a). Ball bearings, gears or
pulleys are seated against this shoulder. The shoulder creates a
change in cross-section of the shaft, which results in stress
concentration. There are three methods to reduce stress
concentration at the base of this shoulder. Figure 5.10(b) shows the
shoulder with a fillet radius r. This results in gradual transition from
small diameter to a large diameter. The fillet radius should be as
large as possible in order to reduce stress concentration. In practice,
the fillet radius is limited by the design of mating components The
fillet radius can be increased by undercutting the shoulder as
illustrated in Fig. 5.10(c). A notch results in stress concentration.
Surprisingly, cutting an additional notch is an effective way to
reduce stress concentration. This is illustrated in Fig. 5.10(d).

(iii) Drilling Additional Holes for Shaft A

transmission shaft with a keyway is shown in Fig.5.11(a). The keyway is a
discontinuity and results in stress concentration at the corners of the keyway
and reduces torsinal shear strength
 (iv) Reduction of Stress Concentration in Threaded Members
A threaded component is shown in Fig. 5.12 (a). It is observed that the force
flow line is bent as it passes from the shank portion to threaded portion of the
component. This results in stress concentration in the transition plane. In Fig.
5.12(b), a small undercut is taken between the shank and the threaded portion
of the component and a fillet radius is provided for this undercut. This reduces
bending of the force flow line and consequently reduces stress concentration.
An ideal method to reduce stress concentration is illustrated in Fig. 5.12(c),
where the shank diameter is reduced and made equal to the core diameter of
the thread. In this case, the force flow line is almost straight and there is no
stress concentration

3 Define the following terms 10

i) Theoretical Stress concentration factor M
ii) Fatigue Stress concentration factor
iii) Endurance limit with the effect of size, load and surface factors
iv) Fatigue failure
 v) Stress concentration
Ans.

FATIGUE FAILURE
It has been observed that materials fail under fluctuating stresses at a stress
magnitude which is lower than the ultimate tensile strength of the material.
Sometimes, the magnitude is even lower than the yield strength. Further, it has
been found that the magnitude of the stress causing fatigue failure decreases as
the number of stress cycles increase. This phenomenon of decreased resistance
of the materials to fluctuating stresses is the main characteristic of fatigue
failure.
Let us examine a phenomenon we have experienced in our childhood.
Suppose, there is a wire of 2 to 3 mm diameter and we want to cut it into two
pieces without any device like a hacksaw. One method is to shear the wire by
applying equal and opposite forces P1 and P2 by left and right hands as
illustrated in Fig. 5.16(a). It is diffi cult to cut the wire by this method. The
second method consists of alternatively bending and unbending the wire for
few cycles. Let us consider two diametrically opposite points A and B on the
surface of the wire. As shown in Fig. 5.16(b), when the wire is bent, A is
subjected to tensile stress while B to compressive stress

STRESS CONCENTRATION
 Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its cross-section, the
simple stress distribution no longer holds good and the neighborhood of the
discontinuity is different. This irregularity in the stress distribution caused by
abrupt changes of form is called stress concentration. It occurs for all kinds of
stresses in the presence of fillets, notches, holes, keyways, splines, surface
roughness or scratches etc.

4 a) What is the notch sensitivity? And write the expression for it. 3M
Ans. Notch Sensitivity
In cyclic loading, the effect of the notch or the fillet is usually less than
predicted by the use of the theoretical factors as discussed before. The
difference depends upon the stress gradient in the region of the stress
concentration and on the hardness of the material. The term notch sensitivity is
applied to this behavior. It may be defined as the degree to which the
theoretical effect of stress concentration is actually reached.
4 b) Find the maximum stress induced in the following case taking stress 7M
concentration into account:
A stepped shaft as shown in Fig. (b) and carrying a tensile load of 12 KN

Ans.

5 a) What are the fluctuating stress, repeated stress and reversed stress? Draw 4M
the Stress – Time sinusoidal curves.
Ans. The failure is caused by means of a progressive crack formation which are
usually fine and of microscopic size. The failure may occur even without any
prior indication. The fatigue of material is effected by the size of the
component, relative magnitude of static and fluctuating loads and the number
of load reversals.

5 b) Determine the diameter of a circular rod made of ductile material with a 6M

fatigue strength (complete reversal), σe=265 MPa and tensile yield strength
of 350 MPa. The member is subjected to a varying axial load from W min
=-300 KN to W max = 700 KN and has a stress concentration factor is 1.8.
Use factor of safety as 2.
 Ans.

6 a) Define the term “stress concentration” with suitable diagram and “stress 5M
concentration factor” also.
Ans. STRESS CONCENTRATION
Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its cross-section, the
simple stress distribution no longer holds good and the neighborhood of the
discontinuity is different. This irregularity in the stress distribution caused by
abrupt changes of form is called stress concentration. It occurs for all kinds of
stresses in the presence of fillets, notches, holes, keyways, splines, surface
roughness or scratches etc.

6 b) A machine component is subjected to a fluctuating stress that varies from 5M

40 N/mm2 to 100 N/mm2. The corrected endurance limit of the machine
component is 270 N/mm2. The ultimate stress and yield point stress of the
material are 600 and 400 N/mm2 respectively. Find the factor of safety
using: (i) Gerber formula. (ii) Solderberg line. (iii) Goodman line.
Ans. Do the solution as the same as Question no:10
7 A circular bar of 500 mm length is supported freely at its two ends. It is 10
acted upon by a central concentrated cyclic load having a minimum value M
of 20 kN and a maximum value of 50 kN. Determine the diameter of bar
 by taking a factor of safety of 1.5, size effect of 0.85, surface finish factor
of 0.9. The material properties of bar are given by : ultimate strength of
650 MPa, yield strength of 500 MPa and endurance strength of 350 MPa.
Ans.

8 Cantilever beam made of cold drawn carbon steel of circular cross-section 10

as shown in Fig. Is subjected to a load which varies from – F to 3 F. M
Determine the maximum load that this member can withstand for an
indefinite life using a factor of safety as 2. The theoretical stress
concentration factor is 1.42 and the notch sensitivity is 0.9. Assume the
following values :
Ultimate stress = 550 MPa
Yield stress = 470 MPa
Endurance limit = 275 MPa
Size factor = 0.85
Surface finish factor= 0.89
 Ans.

9 a) Derive the expressions for Goodman and Soderberg Methods 8M

Ans. Goodman Method for
Combination of Stresses
A straight line connecting the endurance limit (e) and the ultimate strength (u), as shown by
line AB in Fig. 6.16, follows the suggestion of Goodman. A Goodman line is used when the
design is based on ultimate strength and may be used for ductile or brittle
materials.
Soderberg Method for Combination of Stresses
A straight line connecting the endurance limit (e) and the yield strength (y), as shown by the
line AB in Fig. 6.17, follows the suggestion of Soderberg line. This line is used when the
design is based on yield strength.
9 b) Plot the Diagram for combined steady and variable stress and name the 2M
lines in it
Ans. Combined Steady and
Variable Stress
The failure points from fatigue tests made with different steels and combinations of mean and
variable stresses are plotted in Fig. 6.15 as functions of variable stress and mean stress. The
most significant observation is that, in general, the failure point is little related to the mean
stress when it is compressive but is very much a function of the mean stress when it is tensile.
In practice, this means that fatigue failures are rare when the mean stress is compressive (or
negative). Therefore, the greater emphasis must be given to the combination of a variable
stress and a steady (or mean) tensile stress.

10 A machine component is subjected to a flexural stress which fluctuates 10

between + 300 MN/m and – 150 MN/m . Determine the value of minimum M
2 2

ultimate strength according to

1. Gerber relation; 2. Modified Goodman relation; and 3. Soderberg
 relation.
Take yield strength = 0.55 Ultimate strength;
Endurance strength = 0.5 Ultimate strength; and
factor of safety = 2.
Ans.