EFFECTIVE TEACHING STRATEGIES OF BULACAN

STATE UNIVERSITY SARMIENTO CAMPUS

A Research

Presented to the

College of Education

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement

For the Subject of Teaching Profession

By:

DOTILLOS, ROCHE ANNE P.

Submitted to:

Atty. Perpetua Serapio

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I: PROBLEM AND SETTING

I. INTRODUCTION

II. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

III. IMPORTANCE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

IV. SCOPE AND DELIMINATIONS

CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

I. RELEVANT THEORY

II. DEFINITION OF TERMS

III. RELATED STUDIES

IV. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

CHAPTER III: METHODS OF RESEARCH AND PROCEDURES

I. METHODS OF RESEARCH

II. METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA AND DEVELOPMENT INSTRUMENT

III. NARRATIVE

CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

I. PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS

II. DATA FROM SURVEYS

III. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

 ABSTRACT

Effective teaching in developmental education is one of the most challenging jobs in the

college teaching profession. The search for teaching excellence in this field extends beyond

basic cognitive issues to address noncognitive needs of underprepared students also. The six

principles for effective developmental education teaching reviewed in the article are the

product of integrating research findings from successful developmental education programs

and general principles for effective teaching in undergraduate education. The principles focus

on key elements that teachers may use to support effective teaching.Many teaching

professionals spend their entire careers in search of teaching excellence. This search may be even

more important when students are underprepared adults. These students lack the foundation and

skills required for rigorous college curriculum and many of them have adult responsibilities that

place excessive demands on their time and other resources. These students present challenges to

developmental educators that often far exceed those presented by traditional college students:

“How to guide and teach students who are underprepared for traditional college level studies is

the thorniest single problem for community colleges” (Cohen & Brawer, 1982, p. 236 ). This

challenge extends throughout all levels of postsecondary education with developmental

education serving as a gateway to postsecondary education for many students in this country. It

is not surprising that there are many commonalities among these studies. All of the elements

required for effective college teaching apply to effective developmental education teaching as

well. However, it may be even more imperative to apply them in work with developmental

students and for developmental teachers to be more precise and in-depth. For example, the

teacher of traditional college students can simply encourage active learning and usually achieve

the desired student outcome. On the other hand, encouragement is not enough for most
developmental students. The developmental education teacher must structure and lead the

activities for developmental students while teaching them to become independent learners. Also,

the issue of frequent feedback is more demanding with developmental students since they

usually lack the ability to judge their own progress. Moreover, respect for diverse talents and

ways of learning takes on a deeper meaning when it is applied to developmental students who are

much less homogeneous than traditional college students. Nevertheless, all the aspects of

teaching excellence important to developmental education students represent a model for

teaching all students.

 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Effective Teaching Strategies That Accommodate Diverse Learners examines the

teaching, instruction, and curricular required to meet the needs of diverse learners, who by

virtue of their experiential, cultural, and socioeconomic backgrounds challenge traditional

curriculum and instructional programs. There is a great degree of diversity present in many

classrooms. Teachers often have to contend with accommodating students of differing ability

levels as well as dealing with the unique needs of students with varying ethnic backgrounds.

While dealing with the differences among students can seem overwhelming to some, the task

can be made much simpler through the integration of several teaching techniques which aim to

help teachers accommodate learning differences among students. These techniques allow

teachers to present information in a fashion that is accessible to all students, regardless of their

personal background and academic needs.

Most diverse learning needs can be met in the general classroom when two guidelines

are kept in mind by the classroom teacher: (1) Student performance is the result of interaction

between the student and the instructional environment and (2) teachers can reasonably

accommodate most student needs after analyzing student learning needs and the demands of

the instructional Environment. In fact, the adaptations made for a specific student’s learning

needs may be beneficial to many other students in the same classroom. Adaptations are simply

good teaching techniques put to use.

 A distinction should be made that an adaptation assumes that the anticipated student

outcome from the lesson is not changed or altered. Changing the lesson’s intended outcome, to

meet specific student needs, results in a modification in the lesson not an adaptation in the

teaching of the lesson. Adaptations should be kept simple. Some may require the added

support of special education teachers or gifted coordinators to enhance the lesson. Many can

encourage the direction for further team or individual staff development. The first section

suggests a variety of classroom strategies to meet diverse learning needs. A section that briefly

defines some terminology follows. The third section contains sample activities employing some

selected strategies within the themes of the K-12 Social Studies Framework. The final section is

a list of resources and references provided by the writing teams.

A strategy can be thought of as a reasonably efficient and intentional routine that leads

to the acquisition and utilization of knowledge. It is possible that two people with the same

advanced knowledge of chess but minimal knowledge of baseball might acquire knowledge

about a sacrifice bunt differentially because of differences in how they use knowledge.
 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

• What are the expected levels of performance in the essential concepts and skills?

• How are all students doing in relationship to those expected levels of performance?

• Are there important patterns in the results regarding for whom the core is or is not working?

• Is any diagnostic assessment information needed to make instructional decisions?

• What will we do to supplement or enhance within the core for those students who do

not meet or who exceed the expectations of core instruction?

• Did the changes to instruction have the intended impact on student performance?

• How will we formatively assess students at the core, supplemental and intensive

instruction levels?
 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Students all respond to different methods of study in different ways. For example,

some benefit from charts and diagrams more than others for effective learning, while many

find their retention significantly improves when they listen to an instruction rather than read it.

Understanding different types of learners in your classroom before planning a lesson will help

the students absorb the material and provides a great opportunity to introduce effective study

skills. Help your students discover how they naturally tend to absorb information, and

encourage each of your learners to consider these techniques. After discovering the types of

learners in your classroom, you can learn how to teach effective study skills to them.

Auditory learners are the students who understand more by listening. They may do well

in a lecture setting or class discussion to enhance their study skills. They should be encouraged

to tape record your class sessions and then listen to them again as they are studying. This

strategy will help them connect the study materials or passages in a book with what was said and

understood in class. These students may also find it helpful to read the information out loud to

themselves. Sometimes they benefit from some sort of "background noise" like music when they

study. It may seem counterintuitive to suggest distractions of that sort, but the noise helps to

stimulate their thinking and will help them remember the material better.

Visual learners need to see something before they will understand the information. If

they are in a lecture class, they may need the important parts written on the board as a visual

representation. Directed note taking is also helpful to a visual learner as they have a written

representation of what they should be listening for instead of just being expected to pick out the
main parts themselves. To build on these study strategies, teach the students graphic organizers

(like Venn Diagrams, flash cards or outlining techniques) to organize their thoughts and ideas

from the book. They may also do well by reading the chapter or getting a print out of a

PowerPoint presentation if you use one in class.

Tactile/kinesthetic learners need action and hands-on activities to succeed in the

classroom. Role playing helps them learn the material better. Encourage these students to try

preparing the lesson to "teach" someone else. Even if they don't get a chance to actually teach it

to a live person, it helps to organize their thoughts as if they were. Making a puzzle out of

concepts and details and then physically putting them in the right categories can help with

memory retention as well.

Organization is essential. No matter what method suits a student best, she needs to

figure out an organizational system that works best for her as well. Some students prefer spiral

bound notebooks, while others prefer binders and loose leaf paper. Calendars, assignment

notebooks, and "To Do" lists may also be a good way to organize all of those upcoming

deadlines and important dates. There is no one right way to get organized, so help the student by

being flexible to meet her needs.

Learn time management skills. Cutting out distractions or setting a specific time every

day that is designated for studying will help your student effectively manage his time.

Additionally, research has shown that short breaks should be incorporated into any study session

in order to fully maximize the learning that is accomplished. These breaks need to be short and

fairly frequent. Just be sure they don't turn into long breaks that cut into actual study time too

much or cause too much distraction.

 Get enough rest! One of the highly ignored study tips for all types of learners is having

enough rest. Sleep is a very important component to good study habits and skills. Falling asleep

while studying is neither restful nor helpful when trying to learn the material. Teenagers should

be getting between 8-10 hours of sleep a night in order to be fully functional the next morning

and have successful recall of their studying from the prior night. Less than 6 hours of sleep has

actually been proven to be detrimental, so make sure your student is actually sleeping and not

cramming non-stop.

There is no study method that is 100% successful for everyone. All students need to find

a way that works best for them by trying different study techniques. Offering these ideas, and

many other options, will increase the likelihood the students will succeed.

Differentiated Instruction
One of the easiest ways for teachers to accommodate multiple ability levels within their

class is to differentiate instruction. When teachers differentiate their instruction, they provide

individual students or groups of students with work tailored to their ability level. To

differentiate effectively, teachers require higher level responses for more capable students and

allow struggling students to produce more rudimentary work. The practice of differentiation,

while somewhat labor intensive, is possible in all classes. To differentiate, a teacher must first

assign an ability level to each of her students. This can be done by consulting students' previous

test results or looking at their general work habits. The teacher would then create three

separate activities: one high, one on grade level and one below grade level. The students would

then receive the assignment that falls within their ability level. This practice ensures that all
students are capable of completing the provided assignments and that no student is forced to

struggle or pushed to the frustration point.

Ethnic Literature
For many years, it was quite difficult to find ethnic literature for children and

adolescents. Much of the touted literature of the time was written primarily for a white middle-

class audience. In the last several decades, there has been an increased push towards including

ethnically diverse characters in literature. A number of organizations aim to promote the

inclusion of ethnic characters by rewarding authors who integrate themes relevant to ethnic

students into their work. The Coretta Scott King award, named for the wife of prominent civil

rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr., is presented yearly to great works of adolescent literature

including African American characters. Similarly, the Pura Belpre award, which is named for the

first Latino librarian in New York City, is presented annually to great works of adolescent fiction

focusing on the unique struggles of Latinos. Teachers can accommodate the needs of diverse

learners in their reading classes by integrating ethnically sensitive literature, such as King- and

Belpre-award winning novels, into the curriculum. The inclusion of this type of literature allows

all students the opportunity to engage with literature which reflects their lives and beliefs.

High Expectations
Establishing high expectations for diverse students is of vital importance, according to a

Harvard Review report by C. Rist. Often, ethnic students live in urban areas and suffer from an

economic disadvantage. Many students who live in poor conditions develop a low sense of self-

worth. These students see only struggle and strife around them, and this lack of a positive

image causes them to develop low self-esteem. Teachers can work towards fixing the students'
self-esteem deficit by expressing her belief that the students are capable and expressing high

expectations. These students often do not value themselves as people, so teachers need to

show that they care about them and that they do have value. Lavishing praise and expressing

belief that students are talented and capable are both easy to implement techniques that assist

diverse learners in overcoming their self-doubt.

SCOPE AND DELIMINATION OF STUDY

Positive Perspectives on Parents and Families "Whether it’s an informal chat as the

parent brings the child to school, or in phone conversation or home visits, or through

newsletters sent home, teachers can begin a dialogue with family members that can result in

learning about each of the families through genuine communication."

Parents are the child's first teacher and are critically important partners to students and

teachers. To help parents become aware of how they can be effective partners in the

education process, teachers should engage in dialogue with parents as early as possible

about parents' hopes and aspirations for their child, their sense of what the child needs,

and suggestions about ways teachers can help. Teachers explain their own limitations and

invite parents to participate in their child's education in specific ways.Parent involvement

need not be just how parents can participate in school functions. Oftentimes, religious and

cultural differences preclude active participation in school activities. However, parental

involvement also includes how parents communicate high expectations, pride, and

interest in their child's academic life. Constant communication with parents is an

important aspect of a child's educational progress. Involving parents and families in their
child's educational process results in better scholastic achievement. When families share

their "funds of knowledge" with the school community, teachers get a better idea of their

students' background knowledge and abilities, and how they learn best.

Communication of High Expectations "When a teacher expresses sympathy over

failure, lavishes praise for completing a simple task, or offers unsolicited help, the teacher may

send unintended messages of low expectations."

All students should receive the consistent message that they are expected to attain high

standards in their school work. This message must be delivered by all that are involved in

students' academic lives, that is: teachers, guidance counselors, administrators, and other

school personnel. Teachers should understand students' behavior in light of the norms of the

communities in which they have grown. They should respect all students as learners with

valuable knowledge and experience.Effective and consistent communication of high

expectation helps students develop a healthy self-concept It also provides the structure for

intrinsic motivation and fosters an environment in which the student can be successful.

Learning With in the Context of Culture "The increasing diversity in our schools, the

ongoing demographic changes across the nation and the movement towards globalization

dictate that we develop a more in-depth understanding of culture if we want to bring about

true understanding among diverse populations."

Children from homes in which the language and culture do not closely correspond to that of the

school may be at a disadvantage in the learning process. These children often become alienated
and feel disengaged from learning. People from different cultures learn in different ways. Their

expectations for learning may be different. For example, students from some cultural groups

prefer to learn in cooperation with others, while the learning style of others is to work

independently. To maximize learning opportunities, teachers should gain knowledge of the

cultures represented in their classrooms and adapt lessons so that they reflect ways of

communicating and learning that are familiar to the students.Children learn about

themselves and the world around them within the context of culture. Students from

minority cultures may feel pressured to disavow themselves of their cultural beliefs and

norms in order to assimilate into the majority culture. This, however, can interfere with

their emotional and cognitive development and result in school failure.

Student-Centered Instruction "In our multicultural society, culturally responsive

teaching reflects democracy at its highest level. [It] means doing whatever it takes to ensure

that every child is achieving and ever moving toward realizing her or his potential."

Student-centered instruction differs from the traditional teacher-centered instruction. Learning

is cooperative, collaborative, and community-oriented. Students are encouraged to direct their

own learning and to work with other students on research projects and assignments that are

both culturally and socially relevant to them. Students become self-confident, self-directed, and

proactive.Learning is a socially mediated process. Children develop cognitively by interacting

with both adults and more knowledgeable peers. These interactions allow students to

hypothesize, experiment with new ideas and receive feedback.

 Culturally Mediated Instruction "Ongoing multicultural activities within the

classroom setting engender a natural awareness of cultural history, values and contributions."

Instruction is culturally mediated when it incorporates and integrates diverse ways of knowing,

understanding, and representing information. Instruction and learning take place in an

environment that encourages multicultural viewpoints and allows for inclusion of knowledge

that is relevant to the students. Learning happens in culturally appropriate social situations;

that is, relationships among students and those between teachers and students are congruent

with students' cultures . Students need to understand that there is more than one way to

interpret a statement, event, or action. By being allowed to learn in different ways or to share

viewpoints and perspectives in a given situation based on their own cultural and social

experiences, students become active participants in their learning. believes that culturally

mediated instruction provides the best learning conditions for all students. It may help

decrease the number of incidences of unacceptable behavior from students who are frustrated

with instruction not meeting their needs. Also, students from cultural groups who are

experiencing academic success will be less inclined to form stereotypes about students from

other cultures.

Reshaping the Curriculum "[Schools must] take a serious look at their curriculum,

pedagogy, retention and tracking policies, testing, hiring practices, and all the other policies and

practices that create a school climate that is either empowering or disempowering for those

who work and learn there."

The curriculum should be integrated, interdisciplinary, meaningful, and student-centered. It

should include issues and topics related to the students' background and culture. It should

challenge the students to develop higher-order knowledge and skills. Integrating the various

disciplines of a curriculum facilitates the acquisition of new knowledge. Students' strengths in

one subject area will support new learning in another. Likewise, by using the students' personal

experiences to develop new skills and knowledge, teachers make meaningful connections

between school and real-life situations.

Teacher as Facilitator "A caring adult can make a big difference in the educational outcome of

any child that is at risk of experiencing educational failure."

Teachers should develop a learning environment that is relevant to and reflective of their

students' social, cultural, and linguistic experiences. They act as guides, mediators, consultants,

instructors, and advocates for the students, helping to effectively connect their culturally- and

community-based knowledge to the classroom learning experiences. Notes that a key criterion

for culturally relevant teaching is nurturing and supporting competence in both home and

school cultures. Teachers should use the students' home cultural experiences as a foundation

upon which to develop knowledge and skills. Content learned in this way is more significant to

the students and facilitates the transfer of what is learned in school to real-life situations.
 CHAPTER 2

THEORICAL FRAMEWORK

The teaching practice of explicit instruction has been available to classroom teachers

since the late 1960s. Substantial research has been conducted on components and the

complete instructional "package." As with many teaching practices, there are varying degrees of

adaptation and acceptance. The effective teaching practices research identified most if not all

of the components of explicit instruction as essential for positive student outcomes. Explicit

instruction is a systematic instructional approach that includes set of delivery and design

procedures derived from effective schools research merged with behavior analysis. There are

two essential components to well designed explicit instruction: (a) visible delivery features are

group instruction with a high level of teacher and student interactions, and (b) the less

observable, instructional design principles and assumptions that make up the content and

strategies to be taught.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Primed Background Strategic Integration
Require frequent student
Knowledge.
responses.

Provide feedback for

Judicious Review correct and incorrect
Provide adequate
processing time responses:
Description:

Strategic Integration: An instructional design component, strategic integration, combines

essential information in ways that result in new and more complex knowledge. Characteristics

of strategic instruction include: a) curriculum design that offers the learner an opportunity to

successfully integrate several big ideas, b) content learned must be applicable to multiple

contexts, and c) potentially confusing concepts and facts should be integrated once mastered.

The strategic integration of content in the curriculum can help students learn when to use

specific knowledge beyond classroom application.

Judicious Review: Effective review promotes transfer of learning by requiring application of

content at different times and in different contexts. Educators cannot assume that once a skill is

presented and "in" the learner's repertoire that the skill or knowledge will be maintained.

Planned review is essential to ensure that students maintain conceptual and procedural "grasp"

of important skills and knowledge (Big Ideas). Judicious review requires that the teacher select

information that is useful and essential. Additionally, review should be distributed, cumulative,

and varied. Requirements for review will vary from learner to learner. To ensure sufficient

judicious review for all learners, teachers must regularly monitor progress of the students to

inform continued instruction and needed review activities. Review that is distributed over time,

as opposed to massed in one learning activity/unit, contributes to long-term retention and

problem solving.
Primed Background Knowledge: Acquisition of new skills and knowledge depends largely upon

a) the knowledge the learner brings to the task, b) the accuracy of that information, and c) the

degree to which the learner can access and use that information. Priming background

knowledge is designed to strategically cultivate success by addressing the memory and strategy

deficits learners may bring to the new task. The functions of priming background knowledge are

to increase the likelihood that students will be successful on new tasks by making explicit the

critical features, and to motivate learners to access knowledge they have in place.

Require frequent student responses: When students actively participate in their learning, they

achieve greater success. The teacher must elicit student responses several times per minute,

for example ask students to say, write, or do something. Highly interactive instructional

procedures keep students actively engaged, provide students with adequate practice, and help

them achieve greater success.

Provide adequate processing time: Think time (adequate processing time) is the amount of

time between the moment a task is presented and when the learner is asked to respond. Time

to pause and think should vary based on the difficulty of the task relative to the student(s). If a

task is relatively new, the amount of time allocated to think and formulate a response should

be greater than that of a task that is familiar and in the learners' repertoire.

Provide feedback for correct and incorrect responses: Students should receive immediate

feedback to both correct and incorrect responses. Corrective feedback needs to be instructional

and not accommodating. Feedback to reinforce correct responses should be specific. Feedback

should not interfere with the timing of the next question/response interaction of the teacher
and student. Feedback that does not meet these criteria can interrupt the instructional episode

and disrupt the learner's ability to recall.

RELATED STUDIES

EFFECTIVE TEACHING METHODS FOR LARGE CLASSES

Purpose

The primary purpose of this exploratory study was to identify effective teaching

methods for the large class environment. The research questions guiding the study were “What

teaching methods are effective in the large class environments?” and “What are students’

perceptions of these methods?” Using student learning outcomes as the criteria for

effectiveness, several commonly-used teaching methods (lecture, lecture/discussion

combination, jigsaw, case study, team project) were applied and evaluated in a large class

setting. In addition, information on student feelings about large versus small classes and

student opinions of the teaching methods was gathered. It is hoped that the findings from this

study will provide actionable directions for faculty charged with teaching large classes.

Managing large classes

Effective management of large classes is a popular topic among faculty in higher

Education. Carbone (1998) and Stanley & Porter (2002) have produced books focused on the

large class environment, offering strategies for course design, student engagement, active

learning, and assessment. The advantages of large classes include decreased instructor costs,

efficient use of faculty time and talent, availability of resources, and standardization of the
learning experience (McLeod, 1998). However, there are significant disadvantages to large

classes, including strained impersonal relations between students and the instructor, limited

range of teaching methods, discomfort among instructors teaching large classes, and a

perception those faculties who teach large classes are of lower status at the institution.

Class size and Student Performance

Extant research on the relationship between class size and student performance has

identified conflicting results (Toth & Montagna, 2002). The results of some studies show no

significant relationship between class size and student performance (Hancock, 1996; Kennedy &

Siegfried, 1997), while other studies favor small class environments (Gibbs, Lucas, & Simonite,

1996; Borden & Burton, 1999; Arias & Walker, 2004). Results vary based on the criteria used to

gauge student performance, as well as the class size measure itself. When traditional

achievement tests are used, small classes provide no advantage over large classes (Kennedy &

Siegfried, 1997). However, if additional performance criteria are used (e.g., long-term retention,

problem-solving skills), it appears that small classes hold an advantage.

 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

METHODS OF RESEARCH

An introductory level retailing class was selected for the study (N=109). Specific learning

objectives were set forth for each of five chapters, and a different teaching method (lecture, 15

lecture/discussion combination, jigsaw, case study, team project) was applied for each chapter.

For the lecture format, the instructor used PowerPoint slides and delivered in the traditional

manner of the lecture style, with no student input/feedback. In the lecture/discussion

combination, the instructor used PowerPoint slides to deliver the material, but discussion

questions were included on several slides throughout the presentation. The instructor paused

and generated student input/discussion several times during the class session using discussion

questions. Students discussed and debated issues relevant to the chapter. The jigsaw method

involved grouping the students into teams of four, with each member being given responsibility

for reading/learning a portion of the chapter outside of class. Teams were allowed to meet

during the next class and deliver their assigned chapter portions to the rest of their team

members. Under the case study method, students were assigned a case study to read prior to

class time. They were also required to individually prepare written responses to several

discussion questions related to the case study. Once in class, students were then organized into

groups of four and instructed to share their individual responses to the questions in order to

develop a set of “team” responses to showcase the best of all of their individual responses. The

team project assignment required teams of four students to develop a profile of a retail firm,
with the entire project being completed outside of class. Assessment of teaching methods

Students were pretested and post tested using objective, multiple-choice questions covering

basic terminology and concepts from each chapter in order to assess knowledge of the material

before and after each treatment (teaching method) was applied. For example, a learning

objective for the first chapter involved defining the term ‘retailing.’ Therefore, on the pretest

and posttest, the same multiple-choice question was used to assess the students’ ability to

define the term. Then, differences in the pretest and posttest scores were compared to assess

improvement under the teaching method being applied in the chapter. Assessment of the

course, preferences for class size, and perceptions of teaching methods In order to gather

information related to students’ assessment of the course, preferences for class size, and

perceptions of teaching methods, a survey instrument was developed for the study (see

Appendix). The first section of the survey included questions related to students’ overall

perceptions of the course using five point Liker-type scales anchored by ‘completely agree’ and

‘completely disagree.’ The next section of the survey required students to answer three

questions about each of the five teaching methods examined in the study. For purposes

of comparison, the same three questions were asked about each of the five teaching

methods. Students were then asked to indicate a single teaching method they thought

was the most valuable, and to indicate the one they thought was the least valuable. A

space for further explanation of these responses was provided. Next, students were

asked about preferences for class size. Background information including gender, class

rank, and major was also collected.

Effectiveness of teaching methods

The traditional passive view of learning involves situations where material is delivered

to students using a lecture-based format. In contrast, a more modern view of learning is

constructivism, where students are expected to be active in the learning process by

participating in discussion and/or collaborative activities (Fosnot, 1989). Overall, the results of

recent studies concerning the effectiveness of teaching methods favor constructivist, active

learning methods. The findings of a study by de Caprariis, Barman, & Magee (2001) suggest that

lecture leads to the ability to recall facts, but discussion produces higher level comprehension.

Further, research on group-oriented discussion methods has shown that team learning and

student-led discussions not only produce favorable student performance outcomes, but also

foster greater participation, self confidence and leadership ability (Perkins & Saris, 2001; Yoder

& Hochevar, 2005). Hunt, Haidet, Coverdale, and Richards (2003) examined student

performance in team learning methods, finding positive learning outcomes as compared to

traditional lecture-based methods. In contrast to these findings, a study by Barnes & Blevins

(2003) suggests that active, discussion-based methods are inferior to the traditional lecture-

based method. A comparison of lecture combined with discussion versus active, cooperative

learning methods by Morgan, Whorton, & Gunsalus (2000) demonstrated that the use of the

lecture combined with discussion resulted in superior retention of material among students.

Students’ preferences for teaching methods

In terms of students’ preferences for teaching methods, a study by Qualters (2001)

suggests that students do not favor active learning methods because of the in-class time taken

by the activities, fear of not covering all of the material in the course, and anxiety about
changing from traditional classroom expectations to the active structure. In contrast, research

by Casado (2000) examined perceptions across six teaching methods: lecture/discussion, lab

work, in-class exercises, guest speakers, applied projects, and oral presentations.

Students most preferred the lecture/discussion method. Lab work, oral presentation,

and applied projects were also favorably regarded. Hunt et al (2003) also noted

favorable student attitudes towards active learning methods.

Assessment of teaching methods

Students were pretested and post tested using objective, multiple-choice questions

covering basic terminology and concepts from each chapter in order to assess knowledge of the

material before and after each treatment (teaching method) was applied. For example, a

learning objective for the first chapter involved defining the term ‘retailing.’ Therefore, on the

pretest and posttest, the same multiple-choice question was used to assess the students’ ability

to define the term. Then, differences in the pretest and posttest scores were compared to

assess improvement under the teaching method being applied in the chapter.

Assessment of the course, preferences for class size, and perceptions of teaching methods

In order to gather information related to students’ assessment of the course,

preferences for class size, and perceptions of teaching methods, a survey instrument was

developed for the study (see Appendix). The first section of the survey included questions

related to students’ overall perceptions of the course using five point Liker-type scales

anchored by ‘completely agree’ and ‘completely disagree.’ The next section of the survey

required students to answer three questions about each of the five teaching methods examined

in the study. For purposes of comparison, the same three questions were asked about each of
the five teaching methods. Students were then asked to indicate a single teaching method they

thought was the most valuable, and to indicate the one they thought was the least valuable. A

space for further explanation of these responses was provided. Next, students were asked

about preferences for class size. Background information including gender, class rank,

and major was also collected.

CHAPTER 4

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION DATA

Mentoring Minds developed the Master Instructional Strategies Flip Chart as a teacher

tool to augment teaching and learning by identifying strategies or interventions in the following

areas: assessment, time management, brain-based learning, multiple intelligences,

accommodations, learning styles, effective instruction, vocabulary, instructional interventions,

differentiated instructions, engaged learning, classroom management, and behavioral

interventions. Questions that promote critical thinking and increase student understanding are

also included.

There are several reasons for a campus to apply the strategies and/or interventions in

this flip chart. This educational tool serves as a resource to assist teachers as they serve

struggling learners. Integrating these strategies and sound practices into the educational

environment enables teachers to ensure high-quality instruction and intensified intervention in

classrooms at any level. Perhaps referrals to special education can be reduced or become more

accurate when classroom instruction is designed with such practices delivered on a consistent
basis. The abundance of strategies provides instructional choices for teachers and varied

opportunities to meet the complex needs that exist in each classroom.

The content of the Master Instructional Strategies Flip Chart offers a multitude of

intervention strategies that can be readily implemented with identified students who are not

achieving due to specific academic and/or behavior concerns. Other strategies are designed to

effectively teach for any student, no matter what the subject might be. A campus identifies the

specific area of need and selects an intervention or a strategy that is deemed appropriate.

Support for teaching and learning is offered through this product so no student waits until

failure to receive appropriate instruction and intervention.

Classroom management is about procedures becoming routines. Routines give structure

to the instructional environment. Achievement increases when a positive productive learning

environment exists. Behavioral interventions are essential for providing support to students

whose academic learning is disruptive for the student and those around the student.

Interventions are needed to establish a learning climate for students to cease their

inappropriate behaviors so success in school is attained. Studies show when students know

exactly what is expected of them in specific situations, behaviors tend to be appropriate. Reed

(1993) found behavior problems decreased 40% due to students being taught the desired

expectations. Students should be taught each situation in a formal manner with modeling, role-

playing, and repetitive practice.

Teaching takes time and managing classroom time is a challenge. Time management is

a part of most aspects of the instructional day. Effective use of school time begins with efficient
classroom organization and management. Teachers have to find ways to increase time to

maintain the focus on instruction. According to Blasé (1982), teachers complained about having

to cope with student disregard for classroom and school rules. This disregard resulted in

student misbehavior which interfered with the teaching process and student performance. in a

synthesis of 57 research studies, noted that over half of classroom time is spent in activities

other than those of instruction. The greatest part of the loss of classroom instructional time is

attributed to discipline problems. in his review of research on the implication of teaching for

low-achieving students, concluded that the key to achievement gain was maximizing the time

teachers actively engaged the students no matter if they were in a regular or special education

classroom. A time management section was developed for the Master Instructional Strategies

Teacher Flip Chart to promote efficient use of the minutes and hours of each day. Time

management strategies help teachers plan quality instruction and help students stay on task

and work productively.

The implications of brain research suggest teachers can promote thinking and

learning. Brain-based learning provides some direction for teachers who desire to make

purposeful, informed, instructional decisions. Learning how the environment impacts teaching

and learning is paramount to successful learning. Integrating brain research into instructional

practice appears to have value. Strategies suggested reinforce the major brain research findings

(Jensen, 1998; Caine and Caine,1997). Implications for application within the classroom include:

The learning styles section in the flip chart establishes a foundation from which to provide

interventions or strategies for addressing individual needs. Teachers must make critical
decisions in determining which interventions or strategies are most beneficial in delivering

instruction to close learning gaps in a timely manner. In order to provide high-quality

instruction, educators must understand how students learn. Knowing the students’

preferences for learning helps to solidify the appropriate manner for successful

implementation. Instruction and interventions which match students’ strengths to targeted

deficit areas appear to show favorable results in student performance.

Teachers must recognize there are different ways to learn, they must know their

learners, and they must capitalize on the diversity of students to promote high standards in

classroom performance. Educators have recognized for a long time that some students prefer a

particular way to learn. Knowing this information helps teachers plan for small group and

individualized instruction. Students who have knowledge of their own learning styles can better

understand themselves in regards to strengths and weaknesses. Sadler-Smith reported this

understanding helps students to monitor and choose strategies that support their learning. This

knowledge might improve self-confidence when students acknowledge their lack of learning

might not be due to an inadequacy.

Students are apt to get more from a learning experience when they understand and use

their styles of learning. Sarasin suggests using the lesser-preferred styles of learning to help

strengthen the scope of students’ learning and to keep them in touch with how the real world

functions. Found significant differences in a study of visual and verbal learners. The results

appear to indicate that learning styles do affect learning and that improvement and learning

increase if instruction accommodates the needs of learners. how important it is for teachers to
work differently with different learners if learners are to perform their best. They emphasize

that instruction is what increases achievement. Dunn and Dunn also note the importance of

educators receiving professional development on learning styles and its application.

Research indicates that teaching and learning improve with sound instructional

practices. The section on instructional strategies contains evidence-based strategies essential to

any classroom environment that places student success as the driving force for teaching and

learning. These practices are identified as: feedback, cooperative grouping, games/simulations,

homework and practice, questions, and organizers. Strategies for each of the areas are

described. Evidence indicates that when teachers incorporate these strategies into instruction,

teaching and learning improve.

Critical thinking is cited as an important issue in education today. Attention is focused

on good thinking as an important element of life success “Perhaps most importantly in today’s

information age, thinking skills are viewed as crucial for educated persons to cope with a

rapidly changing world. Many educators believe that specific knowledge will not be as

important to tomorrow’s workers and citizens as the ability to learn and make sense of new

information”. Teaching students to become skilled thinkers is a goal of education. Students

must be able to acquire and process information since the world is changing so quickly. Some

studies purport that students exhibit an insufficient level of skill in critical or creative thinking.

In his review of research on critical thinking, Norris surmised that students’ critical thinking

abilities are not widespread.

 Organizers prepare students for learning, develop and reinforce the concept, and help

clarify misunderstandings. Many researchers support the use of organizers for reading skills and

vocabulary development. Graphic organizers allow students to use graphics, symbols, and

words to present a visual display to structure learning before and during a lesson. Stated

students can understand information and learn more when a variety of modes are used to

present content.

Another effective instructional practice noted in the Master Instructional Strategies Flip

Chart is feedback. When feedback denotes where and why students have made errors, it seems

significant increases in student learning result. One of the most important practices used to

improve student achievement is student feedback, according to Hattie. Walberg also reported

that the level of achievement varies depending on the type of teacher feedback a student

receives. Pickering, and promote that students remain involved on a task until the standard is

reached if achievement is to be enhanced. An emphasis on timely feedback appears to affect

the degree of value for learning.

Students have to understand vocabulary to understand the academic content they

encounter in school. When specific vocabulary from academic subject areas is selected as the

focus of instruction, the result was a 33 percent increase in vocabulary comprehension.

Therefore, it appears when students are taught specific content vocabulary in each subject area

at each grade level, students have an excellent opportunity to acquire the academic

background knowledge they need to understand the subject area content. Teaching content

vocabulary using a systematic approach appears to be a powerful tool for student success.
Furthermore, research firmly documents that academic background knowledge has an effect on

academic achievement.

The need for higher quality assessments is well established. Studies show teachers

spend as much as one-third to one-half of their time involved in assessment-related

activities. For instruction to be effective, classroom assessments must reflect quality.

Assessment strategies provide measures to make an evaluative judgment of students’ levels of

competencies in given areas. This judgment determines the educational needs of students and

offers direction to the teacher in planning effective instruction. Assessments should be both

informal and formal. These varied assessments should be utilized before, during, and after

instruction.

The information derived from assessments is a powerful tool to monitor the

development of student understanding, to revise instruction, and to provide reflection for

learners. It is noted that effective teachers utilize assessment tasks as quality learning

experiences. Assessment feedback supplies the learner with self-assessment information, but it

also enhances motivation which is crucial to achievement.

Differentiation is a classroom practice that engages all learners by addressing their

interests, their learning profiles, and their readiness levels. Differentiated instruction occurs in

the curriculum, in lessons, and in assessments. Tomlinson and Roberts and Inman share that

differentiation addresses variance in content, process, and product. Tomlinson states that this

approach is “responsive” teaching rather than planning instruction that reflects “one-size-fits-

all” students. Differentiation is delivered to help all students, no matter what age, learn
efficiently as possible. Improved achievement is promoted when teachers are attentive to

students’ preferences of learning. Reports that student motivation and student attention to

tasks increase when the topics of study reflect personal interests of students.

The flip chart contains numerous suggestions for strategies which develop, reinforce, or

extend general classroom instruction. Intervention strategies can be used within the Response

to Intervention approach used by a campus. The number coding, following each strategy

provides the user with an easy means for documentation purposes. A notable value of the flip

chart is to build or extend the background knowledge of teachers on strategies that research

has identified as important to effective instruction. In conclusion, the Master Instructional

Strategies Flip Chart provides significant insight on what instruction looks like that engages

students and leads them to be successful in learning.

 PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS

Begin each class period with a positive attitude and high expectations. If you expect

your students to misbehave or you approach them negatively, you will get misbehavior. This is

an often overlooked aspect of classroom management.

Come to class prepared with lessons for the day. In fact, overplan with your lessons.

Make sure to have all your materials and methods ready to go. Reducing downtime will help

maintain discipline in your classroom.

Work on making transitions between parts of lessons smooth. In other words, as you

move from whole group discussion to independent work, try to minimize the disruption to the

class. Have your papers ready to go or your assignment already written on the board. Many

disruptions occur during transitional times during lessons.

Watch your students as they come into class. Look for signs of possible problems before

class even begins. For example, if you notice a heated discussion or problem before class starts,

try to deal with the problem then. Allow the students a few moments to talk with you or with

each other before you start your lesson to try and work things out. Separate them if necessary

and try to gain agreement that during your class period at least they will drop whatever issue

they have.

Have a posted discipline plan that you follow consistently for effective classroom

management. Depending on the severity of the offense, this should allow students a warning or
two before punishment begins. Your plan should be easy to follow and also should cause a

minimum of disruption in your class. For example, your discipline plan might be - First Offense:

Verbal Warning, Second Offense: Detention with teacher, Third Offense: Referral.

Meet disruptions that arise in your class with in kind measures. In other words, don't

elevate disruptions above their current level. Your discipline plan should provide for this,

however, sometimes your own personal issues can get in the way. For example, if two students

are talking in the back of the room and your first step in the plan is to give your students a

verbal warning, don't stop your instruction to begin yelling at the students. Instead, have a set

policy that simply saying a student's name is enough of a clue for them to get back on task.

Another technique is to ask one of them a question.

Try to use humor to diffuse situations before things get out of hand. Note: Know your

students. The following example would be used with students you know would not elevate the

situation to another level. For example, if you tell your students to open their books to page 51

and three students are busy talking, do not immediately yell at them. Instead, smile, say their

names, and ask them kindly if they could please wait until later to finish their conversation

because you would really like to hear how it ends and you have to get this class finished. This

will probably get a few laughs but also get your point across.

If a student becomes verbally confrontational with you, remain calm and remove them

from the situation as quickly as possible. Do not get into yelling matches with your students.

There will always be a winner and a loser which sets up a power struggle that could continue

throughout the year. Further, do not bring the rest of the class into the situation by involving
them in the discipline or the writing of the referral. More on dealing with confrontational

students in your classroom.

If a student becomes physical, remember the safety of the other students is paramount.

Remain as calm as possible; your demeanor can sometimes diffuse the situation. You should

have a plan for dealing with violence that you discussed with students early in the year. You

should use the call button for assistance. You could also have a student designated to get help

from another teacher. Send the other students from the room if it appears they could get hurt.

If the fight is between two students, follow your school's rules concerning teacher involvement

as many want teachers to stay out of fights until help arrives.

Keep an anecdotal record of major issues that arise in your class. This might be

necessary if you are asked for a history of classroom disruptions or other documentation.

Let it go at the end of the day. Classroom management and disruption issues should be

left in class so that you can have some down time to recharge before coming back to another

day of teaching.
 DISCUSSION OF RESULT

Teaching for Learner Differences

Today’s teachers face many challenges in the classroom. We live in an era where schools

are accountable for the learning of all students (regardless of their background). Teachers are

expected to provide a rigorous and relevant core program while also providing supplemental

and intensive levels of support for students whose needs are not being met by core. This

includes students who are struggling to meet minimum competencies as well as students who

have instructional needs that extend beyond grade level expectations. To ensure that all

students are receiving the instruction they need to be successful, it is important to consider the

research and best practice regarding teaching for learner differences. This document

summarizes much of the research in the field of diverse learners, organized around four

essential questions:

What are learner differences?

Historically, subgroups have been used to describe learner differences, as if

understanding the category to which one belongs would “explain” strong or weak academic

performance. Socioeconomic status, ethnicity/culture, gender, cognitive ability, disability

status, and English language learners have all been cited as reasons for diverse levels of

academic performance. Current research challenges educators to think beyond this historical

perspective.

Socio-economic status has been thought to explain why, on average, children from

impoverished backgrounds underperform when compared to children from non impoverished

backgrounds. However, not all low performers are from impoverished backgrounds, and not all

children in poverty are low performers.

Culture, ethnicity and race have all been used to characterize learner differences. Children

develop certain learning preferences and ways of learning, in part, because of their experiences

within their cultural or ethnic group. Race, as a subgroup, is often used to characterize a

learner difference, as if the performance of all students within a racial group can be explained

simply by examining skin color. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, 2009,

Hispanic and African-American students are less likely to score proficient on academic

achievement measures, than Asian and Caucasian students. This does not mean, however, that

all low performers are from specific cultural/ racial/ ethnic subgroups, and not all children

within those specific subgroups are low performers.

The reality is, regardless which subgroup students belong to, every student comes to

school with wide variations in background knowledge, strengths and preferences, skills

and levels of family support and involvement. Not all learners within a particular

subgroup will learn best in the same way. Teaching for learner differences requires that

teachers assess each student’s unique learning needs and then respond by planning and

facilitating instruction that supports their learning strengths and allows them to grow in areas

of weakness.

How are learner differences addressed as part of the educational system?

“Public school educators are now required to do something they have never before

been asked to accomplish: ensure high levels of learning for all students. This mandate is not
only unprecedented; it is at odds with the original goal of schools. The notion of all students

learning at high levels would have been inconceivable to the pioneers of public education. If

contemporary educators are to make significant progress in meeting this new challenge, they

must first recognize that the institutions in which they work were not designed to accomplish

the task of learning for all. They must then acknowledge the need to make fundamental

changes in both the practices of their schools and the assumptions that drive those practices.”

Learner differences are often addressed based on a philosophical orientation, a set of

beliefs, or prior experiences with diverse learners. This approach is most often insufficient to

know what to teach, how to teach it, and how to know if students acquired the intended

learning. It is critical to attend to the connection between instruction, curriculum, and

assessment as all students are engaged in the educational process.

The important aspect of a system level approach is that the system is held accountable

For the learning of all students whether high performing or low performing. The Framework

sets expectations, provides opportunities for core, supplemental and intensive instruction and

uses multiple levels of assessment data to guide instructional decisions, ensuring that all

students are learning. This process is characteristically framed on posing and answering

important system level questions. Some examples of important systems.

The implementation of a balanced assessment system, which includes universal

screening, diagnostic assessment, and formative assessment, is a critical component of

response to intervention. The questions posed above are answered by analyzing student

assessment data. Periodic universal screening is used to identify the students in need of
additional instruction, and ensures that students do not “fall through the cracks.” Diagnostic

assessment data are used to match needs with appropriate instruction. Formative assessment

is used during instruction to determine the effectiveness of the instruction and guide teachers

to make changes to instruction when needed.

How do we successfully teach for learner differences?

Even when using a system level approach to addressing learner differences,

instructional effectiveness is a critical component to meeting the needs of diverse learners. The

effectiveness of instruction is dependent on teachers having instructional skills and tools to

address students’ needs in a manner that ensures learning. There is a large body of work on

effective instruction for all learners, including those with learner differences. Because teachers’

time is limited, efficiency in meeting the needs of all learners is essential.

There are effective, research-based instructional methods that teachers need to know,

understand and practice to address the needs of diverse learners. In reviews of expert panels,

and of the school change research, several strategies with moderate to high effect on learning

for students with differences or who are at-risk of school failure or drop-out are identified.

Instructional methods and strategies that are applicable to meet the learning needs of all
students, including:

Big Ideas: Big ideas function as the keys that unlock content for the range of diverse learners.

Those concepts, principles, or heuristics facilitate the most efficient and broadest acquisition of

knowledge. Teaching using big ideas is one promising means of striking a reasonable balance

between unending objectives and no objectives at all.

Conspicuous Strategies: People accomplished at complex tasks apply strategies to solve

problems. Empirical evidence suggests that all students in general, and diverse learners in

particular, benefit from having good strategies made conspicuous for them. This, paired with

great care taken to ensure that the strategies are well-designed, result in widely transferable

knowledge of their application.

Mediated Scaffolding: This temporary support/guidance is provided to students in the form of

steps, tasks, materials, and personal support during initial learning that reduces the task

complexity by structuring it into manageable chunks to increase successful task completion.

The degree of scaffolding changes with the abilities of the learner, the goals of instruction, and

the complexities of the task. Gradual and planful removal of the scaffolds occurs as the learner

becomes more successful and independent at task completion. Thus, the purpose of scaffolding

is to allow all students to become successful in independent activities. There are at least two

distinct methods to scaffold instruction; teacher assistance and design of the examples used in

teaching.

Strategic Integration: An instructional design component, strategic integration, combines

essential information in ways that result in new and more complex knowledge. Characteristics

of strategic instruction include: a) curriculum design that offers the learner an opportunity to

successfully integrate several big ideas, b) content learned must be applicable to multiple

contexts, and c) potentially confusing concepts and facts should be integrated once mastered.

The strategic integration of content in the curriculum can help students learn when to use

specific knowledge beyond classroom application.

Judicious Review: Effective review promotes transfer of learning by requiring application of

content at different times and in different contexts. Educators cannot assume that once a skill is

presented and "in" the learner's repertoire that the skill or knowledge will be maintained.

Planned review is essential to ensure that students maintain conceptual and procedural "grasp"

of important skills and knowledge (Big Ideas). Judicious review requires that the teacher select

information that is useful and essential. Additionally, review should be distributed, cumulative,

and varied. Requirements for review will vary from learner to learner. To ensure sufficient

judicious review for all learners, teachers must regularly monitor progress of the students to

inform continued instruction and needed review activities. Review that is distributed over time,

as opposed to massed in one learning activity/unit, contributes to long-term retention and

problem solving.

Primed Background Knowledge: Acquisition of new skills and knowledge depends largely upon

a) the knowledge the learner brings to the task, b) the accuracy of that information, and c) the

degree to which the learner can access and use that information. Priming background

knowledge is designed to cultivate success by addressing the memory and strategy deficits

learners may bring to the new task. The functions of priming background knowledge are to

increase the likelihood that students will be successful on new tasks by making explicit the

critical features, and to motivate learners to access knowledge they have in place.

Flexible Grouping: is an instructional method that can be used to address diverse student

needs and increase motivation. Flexible groups are temporary groups organized by the

educator to maximize learning related to a lesson, objective, or whole unit. Groups should be

flexible and changing - organized and reorganized to meet the changing needs of the students.
Flexible groups take into consideration the dynamics of and advantages inherent in each type of

group including both teacher-led and student-led groups. Typically, groups are formed based on

students’ age, skills, activities, instructional goals, interests and/or knowledge in a subject area.

Groups can be put in place for a day, a week, several weeks, or an entire school year if needed.

In addition to skills and knowledge, flexible grouping encourages important social skills

including problem-solving, cooperation, discussion, and critical thinking skills.

Universal Design for Learning: Effective instruction requires that teachers have a way to design

instruction that will support the learning needs of all students. Universal Design for Learning

(UDL) is a framework that guides teachers in the development of flexible lesson plans that

ensure that all students have equal opportunities to learn. “Universal Design for Learning

(UDL) is a research-based framework for designing curricula that is, educational goals, methods,

materials, and assessments that enable all individuals to gain knowledge, skills, and enthusiasm

for learning. This is accomplished by simultaneously providing rich supports for learning and

reducing barriers to the curriculum, while maintaining high achievement standards for all

students.”

Maximizing Instructional Time: Research consistently shows that the more time students

spend involved in learning activities, the more they learn. There is a strong positive relationship

between the amount of time students are actively engaged in learning activities and their

achievement. It is also true that increased time spent in academic learning does not result in

negative attitudes toward school or learning. Most teachers schedule and allocate the

appropriate amount of time for learning, but it is equally critical for teachers to ensure that
students are engaged actively in appropriate tasks that students can perform with a high rate of

success. Low success rates correlate negatively with student learning outcomes.

Teaching Academic Survival Skill: Strategic instruction is designed to teach students how to

apply techniques, principles, or rules in order to solve problems and complete tasks successfully

and independently. When students have a “plan” to solve problems or approach tasks, they

will become more independent, self-regulated learners. Good strategic instruction results in

students being able to personalize and adapt strategies and know when, where and how to use

them. Cognitive strategies are the tools, and Metacognitive strategies encourage students to

reflect and evaluate their use of the strategy.

Progress Monitoring: Teachers make on-demand decisions about student mastery on a daily

bases, through formal and informal means. For most high achieving students, these checks are

sufficient to promote high levels of learning, as long as the teacher uses the information to

determine what content needs to be presented in other formats or needs more time, or what

types of extension are necessary to assure learning targets are met.

For struggling students, progress monitoring is a proven practice at the elementary

levels to support teachers in making decisions about necessary instructional changes. Progress

monitoring involves more structured, scheduled administration of brief skills probes that result

in a score. Teachers plot the scores on a graph, and examine the performance against the

desired level of performance. When performance falls below the goal over a course of several

weeks, the teacher increases the time of instruction, or the pace of responding, or examines

other means for presenting material or assessing response. Progress Monitoring is different
than on-demand assessment or rubrics because a structured probe is administered. Research

inhuman learning has proven that expert learners are much more automatic in their responses

than novice learners.

 SURVEY

NAME:
COURSE/YEAR/SEC:

General Classroom Tips for meeting Diverse Learning Needs

• Relate class to personal real life skills and experiences.

___AGREE ___DISAGREE

• Limit expectations to two or three concepts per unit.

___AGREE ___DISAGREE

When your student experiences difficulty with reading.

• allow partner reading.

___AGREE ___DISAGREE

• use peer tutoring.

___AGREE ___DISAGREE

When your student experiences difficulty with writing.

• dictate ideas to peers.

___AGREE ___DISAGREE

• shorten writing assignments.

___AGREE ___DISAGREE

When your student experiences difficulty with speaking.

• give sentence starters.

___AGREE ___DISAGREE
• use visuals.

___AGREE ___DISAGREE
 REFERENCES

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 Conclusion:

Teaching for learner differences includes a broad continuum of characteristics. By

definition, all students have differences regardless of the various subgroups that have been

identified. So, why teach for learner difference? The education system in the United States of

America is unique in the fact that all students are valued and deserving of equal academic

opportunities. Therefore, educators are responsible for identifying academic and behavior

needs for each student. The goal is that every student has opportunities for success while in

school, but more importantly, for life beyond school—whether that includes higher education

or not. How is ensuring the success of each and every student accomplished? This can be

accomplished through a systemic approach that carefully identifies, monitors, and targets

student needs. Finally, how do educators determine the best methods of instruction that will

address learner differences? Through practice, collaborative inquiry of research, and through

the support that educators can provide each other, teaching for learner differences will be the

standard mode of operation in all schools across America.

Based on the pretest and posttest results, all five of the teaching methods appeared to

positively affect students’ grasp of the material. Students’ scores improved most under the

jigsaw method, and least under the team project method, whereas the lecture,

lecture/discussion, and case study methods produced similar improvement. This finding

suggests that moderately-active learning methods such as the jigsaw method are more

effective than the lecture, lecture/discussion, and case study methods. However, more extreme

active learning methods such as team projects completed outside of class may not be as
effective as moderately-active or passive teaching methods. The findings of this study

demonstrate that most students (51%) have a preference for small class sizes (less than 50

students). However, some students (38%) indicated no preference for class size, while the

remaining 10% indicated a preference for large classes (100 or more students). Nearly all of the

respondents (99%) indicated that they were currently enrolled in other large classes. Therefore,

it appears that even though the trade-off between class size and university resources is causing

many students to experience large class environments, this is generally not the preference of

most students.

The lecture/discussion teaching method was the most preferred among students.

Student comments as to their reason for selecting this as the most valuable method seem to

suggest that they have a desire to be somewhat active learners, engaging in discussion rather

than passively listening to a lecture. The jigsaw method was the most valued by a small percent

of the students (19%). This suggests that some students wish to be very active in their learning

process, taking sole responsibility for a portion of the material and learning the other portions

through 19 interaction with their classmates. The case study and team project methods were

less popular with the students. Large groups of students found the jigsaw and lecture methods

to be the least valuable (31% and 30%, respectively), while some students listed the team

project and case study methods. No student indicated that the lecture/discussion method was

the least valuable teaching method. This finding suggests that most students enjoy a blend that

includes at least some component of active learning/participation in combination with

traditional lecture, and confirms the importance of including some level of discussion during

the class, but also providing structure through an organized lecture. Overall, the findings of this
study suggest that faculty teaching large classes should attempt to include constructive, active

teaching methods in their courses whenever possible. Structured, controlled collaboration (e.g.,

jigsaw, case study) would probably be most comfortable to students as opposed to

uncontrolled, unstructured experiences (i.e., team projects). Results indicate that most

students prefer to be active in their learning process. The active and collaborative teaching

methods examined in this study are not only desirable to many students, but they also appear

to produce significant improvement in terms of learning outcomes. Future research should

investigate the effectiveness of additional active and collaborative teaching methods in the

large class environment. Future studies should also incorporate measures of learning outcomes

in addition to examination scores. Measuring improvement in higher level comprehension,

critical thinking, and problem solving skills could provide more insight into the value of the

teaching methods. Based on enrollment projections, large classes are going to become a way of

life for most faculty at least during the short term. Therefore, further investigation of large class

issues is paramount.