CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
One of the biggest environmental challenges that is bedeviling mankind in this 21 st
century is the changing climate across the globe (Datta, 2013). The magnitude of
impact of the phenomena cannot be underestimated as it has the propensity to affect
the output of most agricultural crops, including vegetables (Lee et al., 2012;
Kemausuor et al., 2011 and Kotir, 2011). The Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC AR5) has strongly given an
indication to the effect that the changing climate is “unequivocal”, and
“unprecedented” since the mid- 20th century (IPCC, 2014). The degree of impact of
the changing climate may have accelerated the inconclusive debate and research by
scientists about the causes and consequences of the phenomenon and the need to
develop coping or adaptive strategies.

The IPCC through its series of assessment reports including the latest Fifth
Assessment Report established that global climate is changing as a result of the
combined anthropogenic forces due to Greenhouse Gases (GHG), which are emitted
into the earth’s atmosphere. Even though several GHG such as methane and nitrous
oxide are recognized as major greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, it is convincingly
argued that carbon dioxide is one of the most anthropogenically produced
greenhouse gases that causes warming of the atmosphere (United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change [UNFCC], 2007). According to Tubiello
(2012), the annual amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere is about
13-15 billion tones, about one third of the total emissions from human activities. The
presence of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere through human activities (e.g.
deforestation, burning of fossil fuels and bad farming practices such as slash and
burn) absorb the ultra violet radiation from the sun but prevents it from escaping
through the atmosphere. Therefore, carbon dioxide warms the atmosphere and
consequently affects the dynamics of climatic variables such as temperature and
precipitation.

In view of the emissions of these greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, crops and
forage plants continue to be subjected to the mercy of the increasing temperatures
and changing precipitation patterns with the cumulative effects of reduced plant
growth and yield (Walthall et al., 2012). The IPCC projections and regional level
studies suggest that a changing climate is likely to impact agricultural production,
adversely affect human health through climate induced heat stresses and diseases.

Temperature and precipitation are two most important climate parameters that are
most studied in climate research because of their immediate impact in various socio-
economic sectors (e.g. agriculture and hydrology), including human comfort
(Sayemuzzaman et al., 2014). Temperature and rainfall have therefore become
important variables which can have direct and indirect effects on agricultural crops
in general. Increases in temperature coupled with more precipitation variations as a
result of the changing climate, reduce productivity of crops, and these effects
outweigh the benefits of increasing carbon dioxide (Walthall et al., 2012).

According to Lee et al. (2012), the elasticity of annual climate variables indicates
that warmer temperatures significantly decrease agricultural production including
crops in Asia. It is estimated that when annual mean temperature increases by 1%,
average agricultural production decreases by 0.346%. Nigeria supports the extent to
which climate variability affects crop production. According to their study, rainfall
variability caused a reduction in yam yield during the periods of 1990/1991 in
Nigeria.
Along similar lines, Lobell et al. (2011) cited in Chijioke (2011) argue that, for each
degree that a crop spends above 300C, there was a reduction of yield by 1 percent.
They further revealed that, the availability of water has an important effect on the
sensitivity of crops with yields decreasing by 1.7 percent for each degree day spent
over 30oC under drought conditions. Extreme climate conditions, such as dry spells,
sustained drought, and heat waves have been projected to have large effects on crops
and livestock production (Walthall et al., 2012). Again, it has also been revealed that
high temperatures impact on vegetable crops like lettuce, carrot and cucumber to the
extent that the high temperatures suppress bisexual flowers, decrease the number of
flowers and inhibit flower differentiation and development, which result in low yield
(Masahumi et al., 2011).

It is also important to emphasize the fact that extreme climatic events such as
protracted drought and flooding have greater potential of adversely impacting on
agricultural crops through the creation of favorable conditions for the growth of pest
and diseases which attack these crops and reduce the amount of yield received
(Garrett et al., 2013). Since extreme climatic events are limiting factors to
agricultural production, the manifestation of these extreme events of climate may
potentially affect crops at every stage of production (from cultivation to harvesting
period). Protracted drought reduces the soil moisture content and promotes
evapotranspiration which eventually reduces the growth and yield of crops. For
instance, droughts and floods have been reported to cause failure and damage to
agricultural crops and livestock culminating to lingering food shortage (Mary and
Majule, 2009). At the global level, the impact of climate variability is much felt by
developing countries (IPCC, 2014). The argument is that, developing countries that
produce less carbon dioxide do not wield the requisite capacity in terms of
technology to respond to the varying climate as compared to the developed world
that produce significant amount of carbon dioxide but possess the technological
capacity to respond to the effects of the phenomenon.

For instance, the findings from a study conducted by Awotoye and Matthew (2010)
on the impact of the changing climate on crop yield from 1991-2006 in South-
Western Nigeria revealed that, temperature and rainfall have significant impact on
crop yield. From their study, crop yield increased when there was enough rainfall
and decreased when mean temperature increased. High temperatures increase
evaporation and reduce the moisture content in the soil thereby affecting plant
growth.

Deuter (2008) summarizes the impacts of climate change on vegetables as follows:

 Changes in time to harvest for some crops and locations

 Changes in the sustainability and availability of cultivars for current and
future production locations
 Reduced availability and increased cost of irrigation water in most locations
and in some seasons
 Greater seasonal variability
 Increased pest and diseases incidence and ‘new’ pest, diseases and weeds
 Damage from extreme events (e.g. rain, hail, wind and heat stress)
 Negative impacts on soils and crops due to extreme temperature and rainfall
events and flooding.

Okra, Abelmoschus esculentus (L) (Moench), is a multipurpose-use crop of the

family of Malvaceae. It is grown in all agro-ecological zones in Nigeria mainly for
its immature fruits, which is eaten as a cooked vegetable or added to soups and stews
as a thickener (Tindale, 1983, Akanbi, 2002). Leaves, buds and flowers are also
edible. Dried seeds are nutritious foods, with up to 20% protein (Martin et al., 1981).
Okra is often grown continuously on the same piece of land, especially near urban
centers. This leads to loss of soil fertility, reduced nutrient uptake and drastic fall in
yield.

The species is a perennial, often cultivated as an annual in temperature climates, and

often grows to around 2m tall. It is related to such species as cotton, cocoa and
hibiscus. The leaves are 10 – 20 cm long and broad, palmately lobed with 5 – 7 lobes.
The flowers are 4 – 8 cm in diameter, with five white to yellow petals, often with
red or purple spot at the base of each petal. The fruit is a capsule up to 18cm long
with pentagonal cross-section, containing numerous seeds.

Abelmoschus esculentus is cultivated throughout the tropical and warm temperate

regions of the world for its fibrous fruits or pods containing round, white seeds. It is
among the most heat and drought-tolerant vegetable species in the world and will
tolerate soils with heavy clay and intermittent moisture, but frost can damage the
pods. In cultivation, the seeds are soaked overnight prior to planting to a depth of 1-
2 cm germination occurs between six days (soaked seeds) and three weeks.
Seedlings require ample water. The seed pods rapidly become fibrous and woody,
and to be edible, must be harvested within a week of the fruit having been pollinated.
The fruits are harvested when immature and eaten as a vegetable. Okra is available
in two varieties, green and red. Red okra carries the same flavor as the more popular
green okra and differs only in color.

The most common disease afflicting the okra plant is verticillium wilt, often causing
a yellowing and wilting of the leaves. Other disease include powdery mildew in dry
tropical regions, leaf spots, root-knot nematodes, stink bugs, Aphids, Corn earworms
and Fusarium wilt.
Okra is a popular health food due to its high fiber, vitamin C and folate content. Okra
is also known for being high in antioxidants. Okra is also a good source of calcium
and potassium

1.2 Problem statement

Several studies over the years have revealed that rising temperature and erratic
rainfall pattern which are attributed to the varying climate have been the bane of the
okra farmers. The variability of the climate in recent times has led to a reduction in
okra yield with less than 10 tons per hectare in Nigeria. Climate variability currently
being experienced is likely to increase and intensify. Droughts, floods and storms
are likely to increase in both frequency and intensity. Changes in precipitation levels
and patterns are likely to occur. Temperatures are likely to increase across the
country exacerbating from other climate impacts (John odey, 2009). The activities
of this studies is to investigate on the impacts of this climate variability such as the
rainfall and temperature on okra production in Kuje.

1.3 Justification

Based on the study carried on this research work, the main aim is to seek proficient
measures or mitigation methods in reducing the adverse effect of climate variability
which are rainfall and temperature respectively. Agriculture over the years changes
from time to time so does climate, so in order to proffer measures we must also
consider the changes in climate over the years in respect to agriculture. Droughts
floods and other factors of rainfall must be monitored, changes in temperature over
land (continental areas) and sea (maritime) features should be monitored as well.
The study of climate variability such as this rainfall (important) and okra production
with particular interest to Kuje Local government Area is relevant since the nature
of the shortage of food and its technique differs from one place to another as a result
of moisture quality and its period especially now that the climate change is
threatening the production of this important crop.

1.4 Aims and objectives

The main aim of this research work is to study the impact of climate variability on
millet production in Kuje area of F.C.T Abuja. The Specific objectives are to
determine:

I. The trend in okra production in the study area.

II. The trend in climatic variables such as rainfall and temperature over Kuje area
council, Abuja.
III. The impacts of these selected climatic variables on okra yield.

1.5 Scope and limitations

The scope of this research work is on the impact of climate variability on okra
production in Kuje Area council of Abuja. The variables used are limited to rainfall
data, temperature data and as well as data on quantity of okra yield

1.6 Study Area