A SEMINAR PAPER ON

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS EFFECTS ON AQUATIC

ENVIRONMENT

PRESENTED
BY
ATUU MANASSEH
DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE
JOSTUM
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Climate change is basically a major problem caused by the increase of human activities
or human mismanagement of the earth leading to several direct and indirect impacts on health.
Climatic changes pose wide-range detrimental effects including increment in heat-related
mortality, dehydration, spread of infectious diseases, malnutrition, damage to public health
infrastructure, migration of both man and animals among others. Climate simply may be
described as a long-term average weather condition of a region which is measured by evaluating
the patterns of difference in temperature, humidity, air pressure, wind, precipitation, evaporation
and other environmental variables of that particular region over long periods of time. Climate
change is any significant change (either increase or decrease) in weather patterns for example,
temperature, precipitation, atmospheric pressure, wind, snowfall etc. from decades to millions of
years.

The German advisory council on climate change noted that climate change is a threat
already having substantial impact on human beings and the natural eco-system both in developed
and developing countries but at varying degrees (German Advisory Council on Global Change
[WBGU, 2003]). The impact of climate change on the developed countries has been perceived to
be less severe due to natural advantage, high adaptation techniques, high technology,
mechanized agricultural system and wealth status. These factors have enabled the developed
economies to curtail the adverse effects of climate change. The impact of climate change on
developing countries like Nigeria is grievous given the high temperature level, poor adaptation
capacity, and lack of early warning system. Climate change also affects economies whose
economic activities depends on natural resource such as agricultural activities. Some aspects of
the existing literature had already shown that climate change may lead to significant reductions
in agricultural productivity in developing countries (McGuigan et al., 2002). Indeed, the effect of
climate change on agricultural activities can be viewed from various aspects. Climate change
affects the distribution of rainfall and temperature during a year and this determines crop yields
especially those crops cultivated under rain-fed conditions (Thurlow et al., 2009). Excessive
rainfall leads to destruction of arable land, impairment of cultivated crops, increased growth of
weeds and greater post-harvest loss while a significant reduction in rainfall may culminate in

1
drier land, reduction in water level in streams and rivers, increase in farmers’ search for water for
irrigation and consequently resulting in invaluable man hour losses and reductions in crop yield
(Ozor, 2009). According to Ozor (2009) Climate change also affects livestock production due to
reduction in the available pasture land, reduction in surface water resources for animals, increase
in salinity of water resources for animals, increase in salinity at watering points due to increased
temperature and evaporation in the face of reduced rainfall. This means that there would be a
decline in the production of livestock, resulting in a reduction in the supply and availability of
animal protein including meat, egg, milk and other animal produce such as hides and skins.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) says, a change in the state of the
climate can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by observing changes in the mean and/or
the variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or
longer”. Re-configuration of tectonic plates, variations of solar intensity, variations in earth
orbital, ocean variability, volcanic eruptions, and emission of Greenhouse gases (GHGs) through
anthropogenic activities are several causes of climate change. Often, the term "climate change"
is used to refer to anthropogenic climate change that is also known as global warming.
Anthropogenic climate change is caused by direct result of human activity which is increasing in
an uncontrolled manner that opposed to changes in climate that may have resulted as part of
Earth's natural processes. In this sense, especially in the context of environmental policy, the
term climate change has become synonymous with anthropogenic global warming. Over the last
100 years, it was observed that the earth is getting warmer and warmer which is unlike previous
8000 years when the temperatures have been relatively constant. Average global surface
temperatures are projected to increase by 1.5 to 5.8°C by 2100 (Houghton, 1996).

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) trap heat in the atmosphere and contribute to greenhouse
effect by absorbing infrared radiation. The primary greenhouse gases and their percentage
contribution to the greenhouse effect on the earth are:
 carbon dioxide (CO2) 9-26%
 methane (CH4) 4-9%,
 ozone (O3) 3-7%,
 water vapor (H2O) 36-70% and
 nitrous oxide (N2O) around 5% (World Bank, 2013).

2
These gases absorb heat and radiate some of it back to the earth’s surface, causing global
warming (GW). Global Warming is the increase of the global average temperature on the earth’s
surface and atmosphere due to increasing concentrations of Greenhouse gases GHGs. According
to WB (2013) Climate change is the consequence of global warming.

The present temperature is 0.3 - 0.6 °C warmer than it was 100 years before (Melillo,
2014). There are lots of reasons that’s why climate is changing day by day. There are a number
of greenhouse gases (GHG) that is responsible for global warming. Carbon dioxide, one of the
most prevalent greenhouse gases found in the atmosphere, has two major anthropogenic (human-
caused) sources: the combustion of fossil fuels and changes in land use (Van den Bossche,
2017). Scientists around the world now agree that the reasons of climatic changes occurring
internationally are the result of human activity. Although responsibility for the origins of climate
change primarily with the industrialized nations, the costs of climate change will be borne most
directly by the poor. The effect of climate change is beggar description. Each and every
component of environment is affected by climate change. Both terrestrial and aquatic
environment are being affected by climate change in an indescribable manner.

The aquatic environment can be defined as interacting system of resources such as water
and biota and all 2 of the communities of organisms that are dependent on each other and on
their environment live in aquatic ecosystems. The world has a variety of lotic (moving water)
and lentic (stagnant water) aquatic environments which are a major source of food to millions of
millions of people all across the planet. Aquatic environment is much more sensitive rather than
terrestrial environment because it has a limited ability to adapt to climate change. All three
ecosystems of aquatic environment that are critical components of the global environment are
now facing a crucial moment. Being an essential contributor of biodiversity and ecological
productivity, aquatic environment provides a variety of services for human populations. It
provides water for drinking and irrigation, recreational opportunities, and habitat for
economically important fisheries and so on (Scavia et al., 2002). Aquatic environment has been
increasingly threatened, directly and indirectly by the impacts of climate change that can cause
loss of aquatic biodiversity as well as area of it. So it is high time to determine the degree of
impacts of climate change on aquatic environment, of all form of its ecosystem. Not only this but
also it should be identified what species are affected most and the variation of impacts on

3
different aquatic ecosystem. Existence of life in this planet exclusively rely on its environment. If
that environment is not congenial, then the existence of life will be collapsed. More over aquatic
environment is so much important not only for water but also different animals and plants that it
possesses. The most significant attributes of this environmental degradation is that it affects all
mankind without regard to any particular country, region, creeds or race.

1.2 Statement of the problem

It is well known that Climate change comes with many threats like global warming,
greenhouse gas effects, flooding, acid rain typhoons, rising sea levels, rising sea temperatures
resulting in depletion of marine organisms, earthquakes, wind storms, land and mud slides,
desertification, tsunami, erosion, volcanic activities, hurricanes, pollution, deforestation among
several others.

Climate change has become unpredictable every year in Nigeria. The impacts of higher
temperatures, more variable precipitation, more extreme weather events, and sea level rise are
already felt in Nigeria and will continue to intensify. Climate change poses now-a-days severe
threat mostly in fisheries sector and food security among all other affected sectors. It then
considers why climate change needs to be a priority in development planning, including the
inequitable burden it places on the poor and developing countries as like as Nigeria. Climate
change affects communities and livelihoods in fisheries and aquaculture, and efforts to adapt to
and mitigate climate change must therefore be human- centered. Therefore, the present study
sought to investigate climate change and its effects.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is to investigate climate Change and its effects on
aquatic environment. The specific objective of the study are ;

1. To ascertain the causes and consequences of climate change.

2. To review the effects of climate change on aquatic environment.

4
1.4 Significance of the Study

This research on climate and its effects will add a new insight in understanding the issues
related to climate change in generally. The findings of this paper will be useful to the
government, curriculum designers, students, teacher, lecturers, researchers and the general
populace. The study will be significant to the government at all levels to have a better
understanding of the causes and effects of climate change so that it will enable her build up
advocacy programs through workshops, seminars, public lectures, media campaign, climate
change and waste water summits, tree planting land reclamation, landscaping and beautification,
campaign against desertification through the desert warriors, and control of land, water, noise
and air pollution to enlighten the populace about the negative effects of climate change and the
need to have them checked.

On the part of curriculum designers/ planners, this study shall provide them with the
necessary knowledge on the cause and effects of climate change which they will include in the
curriculum to ensure core knowledge of, and information about, climate change as part of
compulsory education for students at all levels. They Students, while going through this study
will learn about the potential effects of unmanaged climate change, as well as options for
adaptation and mitigation, in order to enable a complete and robust understanding. The
researchers will use this study as a literature in further studies concerning climate change in
general.

5
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Materials and Methods

This seminar work is entirely a review and will entirely rely on secondary data. The main
source of information for this paper's data came from various published studies in various
periodicals. It is totally a review paper, as a result, this work was not prepared using a particular
methodology. It has been developed by internet research, in-depth examination of several papers
from various journals, books, conferences, dissertations available in JOSTUM libraries, and
personal conversation. To enhance this work, all of the data gathered from secondary sources has
been organized logically and chronologically.

6
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Review of Findings and Discussion

3.1 Climate Change in Nigeria
Nigeria like other countries of the world has its own experience of climate change
disasters like the one that struck 25 years ago in the north-eastern region presently comprising
Borno and Yobe states, the southern part of Lake chad, the section of it that lies inside Nigerian
territory dried up. Some four decades ago, the Lake covered an area of over 40,000 square
kilometers, whereas it now encompasses a mere 1,300 square kilometers. While the negative
trend continues unabated and as land is laid to waste by the rising temperature leading to the
rapid southward expansion of the Sahara Desert. Farmlands and surrounding villages became
barren and were swallowed up by advancing desertification, which led to massive migration of
people in search of more fertile terrain from the north east towards the greener plateau and
middle belt regions. Growing desertification forced thousands of Fulani herdsmen to move to the
south and middle belt leading to clashes with crop farmers culminating in death of hundreds
according to the reports of residents and activists (Jumoke, 2016).
Nigeria’s Guinea Savannah region is not spared either. Logging and over dependence on
firewood for cooking have stripped a greater part of this area of its vegetation cover. The
situation is similarly replicated in the south, where the forest around Oyo has long been reduced
to grassland. The south – eastern part of the country has been struck by a different ill. There,
gulley erosion has devastated many settlement areas and farmlands, leading to poverty among
local populations. And, it doesn’t stop there. Just as desertification is devastating vast areas of
the north, rising sea levels are threatening Nigeria’s coastal regions. Although a source of oil
wealth, the Niger Delta’s low-lying terrain and crisscross of waterways make it extremely
vulnerable to flooding, apart from being at the risk of rising sea level, it has fallen victim of
extreme oil pollution In the southern Nigeria, climate change is also reflected in the massive
flood experienced in 2012, houses, farms, farm products, properties and even human beings were
swept away. Also, the statistics released by the southwest zonal office of the National
Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) about 2 years ago show that no fewer than 5000
persons were affected and 60 houses destroyed in a windstorm which occurred in four states in
the south -west region. In the north central Nigeria, especially in Benue and Kogi state, flood has
been occurring yearly.

7
Negligence and a failure to tackle the issue of climate change by successive governments have
also contributed to the rise of insurgency groups across the country. Against this backdrop, if
appropriate, preventive action is not taken and adaptation measures are not implemented in time,
the results could be catastrophic (Jumoke, 2016).
3.2 Causes of Climate Change
There are many factors responsible for climate change globally. However, in this study
we shall be considering the main causes of climate change which include; greenhouse gasses,
aerosols and changing of land use by human, which has been confirmed by many studies to be
the major causes of climate change.
3.2.1 Greenhouse Gasses and Greenhouse Effects
Generally, greenhouse gasses can be defined as gasses that are usually present in the
atmosphere which absorbs and release infrared radiation. This process according to Searchunger
et al. (2008) is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect. Greenhouse effect is simply the
heating of the planet's surface due to the absorption of outgoing infrared or thermal radiation due
to atmospheric greenhouse gases such as methane, carbon dioxide, and water vapor (Richard,
2008). This occurs naturally without any human emissions; the existence of the greenhouse
effect is a vital component of an inhabitable Earth, as it keeps the surface at a livable temperature
(i.e it plays a role of blanket and making the Earth warmer than it would be) without it the Earth
would be much colder, having an average temperature of about -18 °C. On Earth, the
temperature is kept at a comfortable level since the atmosphere traps some of the radiant heat
from the Sun, warming the surface and sustaining life. This trapping is done by greenhouse gases
in our atmosphere, which absorbs some infrared heat radiation and re-radiates some to the
surface of the Earth, warming it (Richard, 2015). This process, as explained above, is the natural
greenhouse effect and is completely necessary to our life on this planet. NASA has reported that
the average temperature of the Earth as a result of the warming from the greenhouse effect is
15°C (Jerry, 2015). This average temperature increase is beginning to harm various
environments. Without the influence of the greenhouse effect on our planet, the average surface
temperature would have been 255 Kelvin- which is equivalent to-18°C or 0°F (NASA’S
Cosmos, 2015). If this were the case, water on Earth would have freeze and life as we know it
would not have existed. According to Encyclopedia of Earth (2015), average temperature of the
Earth is actually approximately 15°C, a significant difference! The figure below shows a diagram

8
illustrating how the natural greenhouse effect works on Earth to maintain a comfortable
temperature.

Fig. 1. A diagram showing how the greenhouse effect work the Earth.
(Source: Wikimedia Commons, 2015)

3.2.1.1 The main greenhouse gases

The figure below shows the percentage composition of the main greenhouse gases.

Fig 2. Percentage Composition of greenhouse gases

9
(Source: Melillo, 2014)
It is evident for the diagram above that, the major greenhouse gases (GHGs) which are directly
emitted by humans are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and several
others. Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas that is contributing (6) to recent climate
change. Methane is the second highest, it contributes 18% to recent climate change. Methane is
produced through both natural and human actions. According to Masson-Delmotte et al. (2013)
Human activities now release over 30 billion tons of CO2 into the atmosphere every year.
Methane is ampler in Earth’s atmosphere now than at any time in at least the past 800,000 years.
Nitrous oxide is another important gas that contribute 12% of total greenhouse gases. Carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) comprises 92% of total greenhouse
gasses (Melillo, 2014).Due to human actions, concentrations of CH4 amplified sharply during
the 20th century and are now more than two-and-a-half time’s pre-industrial levels. In recent
decades, the rate of increase has slowed noticeably (Masson-Delmotte et al., 2013).
Concentrations of nitrous oxide N2O have risen approximately 20% since the jolt of the
Industrial Revolution, with a relatively
rapid increase towards the end of the 20th century (Masson-Delmotte et al., 2013). Overall, N2O
concentrations have increased more rapidly during the past century than at any time in the past.
Another greenhouse gas is water vapor. Water vapor is one of the abundant greenhouse
gases and also the most important in terms of its contribution to the natural greenhouse effect, in
spite of having a short atmospheric lifetime. Some human actions can influence local water
vapor levels. However, on a worldwide scale, the concentration of water vapor is controlled by
temperature, which impacts overall rates of evaporation and precipitation (Masson-Delmotte et
al., 2013).

10
Fig. 3. Key greenhouse gases (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere over the last 2,000 years.
(Source: Masson-Delmotte et al., 2013)

3.2.1.2 Sources of greenhouse gases and their effectivity

There are two main source of greenhouse gases, this includes; the natural source and the
artificial/man-made source. The natural source occurs naturally in the atmosphere. While the
artificial or man-made source are produced by human action. Naturally occurring greenhouse
gases comprise carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and water vapor. On the other
hand, artificial or man-made greenhouse gases include Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) etc,
which are produced by human activities. They are created in a miscellany of industrial
procedures. Concentrations of greenhouse gases are measured by the balance between sources
(emissions of the gas from human activities and natural systems) and sinks (the removal of the
gas from the atmosphere by conversion to a different chemical compound). According to Melillo
(2014) The intensities of most of the naturally occurring gases increases due to definite human
activities. For instance, Carbon dioxide is released to the air when fossil fuels (oil, natural gas,
and coal), solid waste, and wood and wood products are scorched. Methane is emitted during the
production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Nitrous oxide is produced during
agricultural and industrial activities, as well as through burning of solid waste and fossil fuels.
Greenhouse gases with their main source, green house factor and relative abundance are shown
in the following table.

11
Gas Main Source Greenhouse Relative
factor Aboundance
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Combustion of fossil fuels 1 0.036
Methane (CH4) Anerobic decay of organic matter 30 0.0017
Nitrous oxide (NO2) Artificial fertilizers 160 0.0003
Chlorofluorocarbon Refrigerants and solvent 20000 0.00001
(CFCs)
Water vapor (H2O) Evaporation of oceans and lakes 0.1 0.10
Table 1. Greenhouse gases with their main source, green house factor and relative abundance

The emission of greenhouse gases by various human actions is shown in the chart below

Fig. 5: Emission of Greenhouse gases by human action.

(Source: Melillo, 2014)

3.2.2 Changing of land use by human

Land-use change, such as the clearing of forests for agricultural use can affect the
concentration
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, by altering carbon flows out of the atmosphere into
carbon sinks (Plaut and Canziani, 2007). Accounting for land-use change can be
understood as an attempt to measure "net" emissions, i.e., gross emissions from all sources
minus the removal of emissions from the atmosphere by carbon sinks (Banuri et al., 1996).
Increasingly intensive agriculture where a great number of fertilizers used that can be the great
source methane and nitrous oxide. Not only this but also livestock farming is also increased.

12
Cows and sheep produce large amounts of methane when they digest their food. There are
substantial uncertainties in the measurement of net carbon emissions (Plaut and Canziani,
2007).

3.2.3 Aerosols
Another cause of climate change is aerosols, though aerosols are not popular as compare
to greenhouse gases. Aerosols are dust particles which are released into atmosphere in large
quantities of fossil fuels and when wood are burned. Some of these aerosols have a cooling effect
on the climate, while others have a warming effect. They are responsible for warming and heat
retention (Rahel and Olden, 2008. We have two sources of aerosols this includes; natural sources
and anthropogenic sources. Both natural and anthropogenic sources are responsible for
atmospheric aerosols emission. But natural sources seem to produce much higher than
anthropogenic sources. The natural source include, Soil dust with estimated amount of 1500 x
106 metric tons/year, Sea salt with an estimated amount of 1300 x 10 6 metric tons/year, Botanical
debris with an estimated amount of 50 metric tons/year, Volcanic dust with an estimated amount
of 30 metric tons/year, Forest fires with an estimated amount of 20 metric tons/year, Gas-to
particle conversion with an estimated amount of 180 metric tons/year, Photochemical with an
estimated amount of 60 metric tons/year. Total for natural source is 3100 metric tons/year.
While anthropogenic source includes; Direct emission Gas-to-particle conversion and
Photochemical with estimated amount of 120, 330 and 10 metric tons /year respectively. Hence,
the total for anthropogenic source is 460 metric tons/year.

3.3 Effects of Climate Change on Aquatic Environment

Many studies have shown that sea level rise, shrinkage of aquatic environment,
imbalance ecosystem function, thermal effects, abnormal ocean pH, reduced habitat complexity,
invasive species supremacy, saltwater intrusion and decreasing open water production of aquatic
environment is the ultimate result of climate change

3.3.1 Increased Evaporation and Shrinkage of Aquatic Environment

Due to unregulated climate change caused by human interference in nature, increasing
the earth’s temperature initiates subsequent episodes of water evaporation. At present, 6 % of

13
Earth's river runoff is evaporated as a consequence of climate change (Hicks et al., 2016) and it
is increasing day by day. Pew Research Center survey (2016) projects that In vast areas around
the globe, heavy rainfall may become heavier while semi-dry areas may receive less rainfall.
There will be more common and more intense floods or droughts, especially in sub-tropical
areas, which are liable to such events Most of the scientists have started to link more intense
droughts or shortage of water in 11 water bodies to climate change. This is as a result of more
greenhouse gas released into the air, which is causing air temperatures to increase, more moisture
evaporates from land and lakes, rivers, and other bodies of water. Hence, shrinkage of aquatic
environment is occurring in a particular time of the year and it is highest in Africa and Latin
America as shown in the table below

Region Water shortages or Severe weather

drought (%) (Flood or intense
storm) (%)
Asia pacific 41 34
Latin America 59 21
U.S.A 50 16
Africa 59 18
Middle East 38 24
Europe 35 27
Global 44 25

Table 2. Water shortages area all over the world

(Source: Pew Research Center survey, 2016)
3.3.2 Sea Level Rise
According to Carlson et al. (2008), Sea level is possible to rise because of thermal
expansion of marine water and faster melting of glaciers at an average rate of 3.3±0.4 mm/year
and by about half a meter by 2100. This thermal expansion of the sea as well as increased
meltwater and liquidated ice from terrestrial glaciers and ice block have increased ocean water
volume and hence rise in sea level (Rahmstorf et al., 2007). Warmer oceans also drive more
intense storm systems (Knutson et al., 2010) and other changes to the hydrological cycle.

14
General circulation models also predict that oxygen concentrations in the upper layers of the
ocean are likely to decrease as a consequence of increasing stratification, this is supported by
recent observations. Some of the most striking effects of global climate change have appeared in
polar oceans, where temperatures and acidities are changing at more than twice the global
average (Bindoff et al., 2007). Galbraith et al. (2002) opined that a considerable number of
aquatic species will be threatened with this continuous increase in sea level to a degree that some
of them will be listed under the category of threatened or extinct species by the end of this
century. Species that are vulnerable to such drastic effects are ,migratory fishes (mullet and eels),
other aquatic species (turtles), coral reefs (red sea corals), some aquatic crustaceans and large
number of aquatic birds (flamingo, aquatic warbler, pelicans and swan goose) (Newson et al.,
2009). The threats are mainly because of the destruction of spawning areas and nesting grounds
for the above-mentioned species (Galbraith et al., 2002 & Newson et al., 2009).

3.3.3 Effects of Climate change on ecosystem function

Climate change has significant impact on ecosystem function. According to Scavia et al.
(2002) climate change may result in sea level rise; water temperature increase; and deviations
from present patterns of precipitation, wind, and water circulation Estuaries may experience loss
of breeding areas, disturbance of marine waters and associated organisms, changes in circulation
models that affect maintenance of some native species, increased hypoxia and storm magnitude.
Moderate increases in temperature increase metabolic rates, which ultimately determine life
history traits, population growth, and ecosystem processes
(O’Connor M. I. et al., 2007). In this regard, organisms tend to adapt to local environmental
temperatures, with optimal physiological responses matching temperatures that are close to the
environmental average. Organisms are able to acclimatize (adapt to change in climate) to a range
of temperatures around these optimal values (Hochachka and Somero, 2002). Beyond this range,
however, acclimatization fails, mortality risk increases, fitness is reduced, and populations
decline or are driven to local extinction (Hochachka and Somero, 2002). Variation in
temperature canal so have impacts on key biological processes. For example, the distribution and
abundance of phytoplankton communities throughout the world are being decreased with
increased temperature but microbe’s loads are being increased (Hochachka and Somero, 2002).
The annual primary production of the world’s oceans has decreased by at least 6% since the early

15
1980s, with nearly 70% of this decline occurring at higher latitudes (Gregg et al., 2001) and with
large relative decreases occurring within Pacific and Indian ocean (Hoegh-Guldberg and
Bruno, 2010)
3.3.4 Thermal effects
One major cause behind the ascending rise of world’s temperature is the increased emissions of
carbon dioxide gas. If carbon dioxide concentration increases during the 21st century to more
than double of its pre-industrial value, then estimates show that global average temperature will
rise by about 2.5ºC and. For this year after year global sea surface temperature is increasing (Van
den Bossche, 2017). Sex ratios change among animals is an important consequence of this
thermal effect. For instance, many reptiles are reliant on temperature for sex determination
(Janzen et al., 1994) as are some birds (Göth and Booth, 2005) and fish. Temperatures of 29.2°C
produce a 1:1 sex ratio in sea turtle populations; including the green turtle, hawksbill turtle,
leatherback turtle, loggerhead turtle and the olive Ridley turtle. According to Hawkes et al.
(2007), Higher temperatures will lead to the feminization of populations which will affect
breeding success and ultimately will result in extinction of certain species. Temperature
fluctuations during early fish development are another detrimental factor that may induce
different prototypes of deformities including skeletal deformities. Primitive construction and
remote location of fish hatcheries might expose the early developmental stages of fish to the
sharp fluctuations in temperature and inappropriate hatching enclosure hydrodynamics. Such
adverse climatic changes might disrupt vital developmental processes during early
morphogenesis and might give rise to different types of deformities. The developmental rates of
poikilotherms, where body temperatures vary with the environment, increase exponentially with
temperature (O’Connor et al., 2007), with important consequences for a range of ecological
attributes including larval dispersal, larval duration, local adaptation, and speciation (O’Connor
et al., 2007). Below is a graph showing the variation of global sea surface temperature from 1880
to 2020.

16
Fig. 6. Average global sea surface temperature.
(Source: Van den Bossche, 2017)
3.3.5 Gaseous emission and ocean pH
The primary molecule influencing the pH of oceans is carbon dioxide. Since the 1800’s,
oceans have absorbed 1/3 of anthropogenic CO2 emissions (Sabine et al., 2014) and the average
oceanic pH has dropped by 0.10 units, equivalent to a 30% decrease. If unmitigated, oceanic pH
is likely to decrease by a further 0.4 units by 2100. Increases in atmospheric CO2 are currently
more rapid than at any point in the last 650,000 years (Sabine et al., 2014).
Decreasing pH will have impacts on the whole oceanic system, with high latitude cold
water oceans affected earlier and more harshly than warm water oceans. The fact that increased
CO2 affects species differentially means that it is likely to drive substantial changes in the
species composition and dynamics of all terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (Koch et al., 1996).
Farming, livestock husbandry and the combustion of fossil fuels cause excess sulfur dioxide,
ammonia, and nitrogen oxides to be released to the surrounding environment, where they are
transformed into nitric acid and sulfuric acid. When nitrogen and sulfur compounds from the
atmosphere are mixed into coastal waters, the change in water chemistry is as much as 10 to 50
percent of the total changes caused by acidification from carbon dioxide (Vitousek et al., 1997).
Such new chemical mix changes the chemistry of seawater, with the increase in acidic
compounds lowering the pH of the water while reducing the capacity of the upper ocean to store

17
carbon. Further, Burke and Grime, (2007) found out that the uprising increase in nitrogenous
deposition into natural water systems can increase the dominance of non-native species.

Fig.7. Global sea surface PH change over 2000 years.

(Source: Sabine et al., 2014)

3.3.6 Increased flooding

Climate change is responsible for flooding globally. In Nigeria flood normally occurs around
August and September and rarely in October. The water has submerged more areas, leaving over
1.3 million people displaced and triggering a humanitarian crisis in Nigeria in 2022. The
devastation has now expanded across 33 states, causing widespread displacement and destruction
of infrastructures and properties, as well as injuries, illness and death. More than 200,000 homes
have been destroyed and many farm lands swept away, roads connecting different regions of

18
Nigeria have been largely cut off which means there is now disruption in transportation/ food
and fuel supplies. There is an increase in precipitation due to climate factors which are affected
by human activities.

Fig.8. Flooding
(Source: Ibrahim, 2022)
3.3.7 Decreasing of open water production
Studies have found that human activities have contributed to an increase in
concentrations of atmospheric greenhouse gases contributing to intensification of heavy rainfall
events in some area or no rainfall of some area at all. Extreme weather events have severe
consequences for aquatic environment. The increasing trend of extreme weather has great
negative impact on breeding and gonadal development of fish species (Melillo, 2014). Not only
this but also water depth and pH being fluctuated for extreme temperature. So, fish production
from open water bodies called capture fisheries is decreasing day by day. For fulfill the demand
culture fisheries is taking that place in 1950 all fish comes from wild. From 1975 capture
fisheries are decreasing and culture fisheries is increasing worldwide as show in the figure
below.

19
Fig. 9. Contribution of Aquaculture production and capture production of global fish production
since 1950 to 2014. (Source: Melillo, J. M., 2014)
3.3.8 Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs
In addition to warming, the world's oceans are gradually becoming more acidic due to
increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). Increasing acidity could harm shellfish by
weakening their shells, which are created from calcium and are vulnerable to increasing acidity.
Acidification may also threaten the structures of sensitive coral reefs upon which some fish and
shellfish rely. Higher sea surface temperatures and ocean acidification would increase the risks
of coral bleaching events that can lead to loss of critical habitat.
3.3.9 Climate changes affect fishing mortality
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007) predicts that as sea temperatures
change, fish numbers will change and fish will move to different areas, some species will go
extinct in particular areas, predators and prey will move to different areas, disrupting food
chains, wetlands and other low-lying habitats where fish reproduce will be covered by rising sea
levels. Water in lakes will get warmer, bad weather may stop fishers going to sea and increasing
fishing mortality.

20
 Fig.10. Climate change affects fishing mortality. (Source: IPCC, 2014)

3.3.10 Potential impacts of climate change on the economics of fisheries

Climate changes influences the abundance, migratory patterns and mortality rates of wild
fisheries stocks and determine what species can be farmed in certain regions. These climate
effects on fisheries have social and economic consequences for people dependent on fisheries
and aquaculture –from workers to coastal communities to consumer of fish.
3.3.11 Climate change on live food used as fish feed
Live food encompasses both phytoplankton and zooplankton used as the major dietary
requirements for fish and shellfish. Due to climate change their abundance are decreasing which
directly hamper the growth of fishes.

Fig.11. Climate change reduces the availability of phytoplankton and zooplankton (WB,
2013)

21
3.3.12 Increased Salinity
Saltwater intrusion means a process by which sea water infiltrates coastal groundwater
systems and mixing with the local freshwater. It is the movement of saline water into freshwater
aquifers, which can lead to contamination of drinking water sources and other consequences
Saltwater intrusion occurs naturally to some degree in most coastal aquifers, owing to the
hydraulic connection between groundwater and seawater. Because saline water has a higher
mineral content than freshwater, it is denser and has a higher water pressure. As a result,
saltwater can push inland beneath the freshwater. Certain human activities, especially
groundwater pumping from coastal freshwater wells, have increased saltwater intrusion in many
coastal areas. (Johnson, 2007)

Fig. 12. Salt water intrusion in coastal area (Source: Alam et al. 1999)

3.4 Benefits/Positive Effects of Climate Change

According to Isaac Newton third law of motion, to every action there is always an equal
and opposite reaction. This implies that anything disadvantages has some advantages. In that
context, Climate change on aquatic environment has both positive and negative effects. Severe
stress can tolerate some stress tolerant species. Climate change positively impacts on some salt
tolerant fish species. During flooding condition nutrient availability and species distribution are
occurred prominently. But the positive effects are little bit as compared to the negative effects.

3.5 Adaptation and mitigation to climate change

To protect our Aquatic Environment, Ecosystem Services and the environment at large,
the following measures should be taken:

22
1. Appropriate technologies for adaptation and mitigation should be deployed at all levels,
while there should be strengthening of the weak human capacity and infrastructure for
mainstreaming climate change in national development.
2. Proper awareness should be created on issues of climate change which is presently at low
ebb especially amongst vulnerable groups like women, children, even at the grassroots,
especially rural dwellers, as well as revive the tree planting program by raising awareness
for individuals to plant trees.
3. Extend our knowledge on sensitivities and adaptation capabilities of marine key species
to climate change.
4. Extend our knowledge on the regional factors that determine the vulnerability and
resilience of marine communities to climate change;

5. Extend our aquatic monitoring efforts;

23
 CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Conclusion
Climate change is caused by a variety of factors, but many greenhouse gases are mostly
to blame; this impact is known as the "Greenhouse Effect." The environment is manipulated by
human activities, changing these greenhouse effects, which creates a number of unfavorable
climatic conditions and changes various physical and biological cycles required for
environmental equilibrium.
In addition to greenhouse gases, aerosols and altered land use are escalating the problem.
Climate change is expected to have a wide range of effects on aquatic animal populations and
those who depend on them. One significant influencing element in the destruction of breeding
sites of so many migratory aquatic species, including fish, shellfish, and amphibians, is sea level
rise with the ensuing coastal erosion. Due to the severe health effects of increased carbonic acid
on calcium deposition in shell-carrying animals, growing ocean acidification is a negative factor
for the expected loss of a respectable number of shellfishes. The changing sex ratios of marine
mammals, fish, amphibians, and aquatic birds as well as the rise of biological invaders are two
more serious effects of global warming. Diverse, intricate, and interconnected environmental
factors affect how aquatic food is produced. Hence, there is a clear need to apply precautionary
principles, such as taking presumptive action to reduce the future course of devastating
environmentally damaging global climatic changes, in light of the possibility that climatic and
other environmental changes could adversely affect the production of edible aquatic animals
worldwide.

24