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CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

A street light is any electrical lighting that is installed outside a residence for the purpose of
illuminating the environment, or an elevated source of light on the edge of a road or path that is
switched ON at a set time each night (Innocent, 2019). Street lighting is highly important since it
helps to illuminate our streets and beautifies the area at night. According to Akaeze (2019),
streetlights boost both the aesthetic beauty and security of a place, but the terrible state of our
streetlights in Nigeria due to a lack of proper maintenance has become a major source of concern.
Due to the manual operation of the lighting, failure and inconsistencies in the power supply prevent
our streets from being continuously illuminated, which increases crime and provides support for bad
acts Uthman (2019). Street lighting ensures that all road users, including pedestrians, are safe at
night. According to research, providing street lighting reduces nighttime automobile accidents
dramatically (Komal et al, 2017). It also helps to minimize crime fear and stimulates social
inclusion by establishing an environment in which people feel safe walking at night. Street lights
are essential today for safety and preventing accidents at night. For safety reasons and to prevent
accidents at night, street lights are a major necessity in modern living. One of the most significant
and costly duties in every community is providing street lighting. In typical cities throughout the
world, lighting can make up 10–38% of the entire energy bill (Ahmed et al., 2013).

Street lighting is a critical concern for public authorities in developing countries such as Nigeria
because of its strategic relevance for economic and social stability due to lowered crime rates,
accidents, and other evil activities that occur during the night (Gouthami, 2016). The installation of
street lights has indirectly aided the public and government in the reduction of crime and accidents
in the area. Due to today's hectic lifestyle, no one thinks to turn it OFF/ON when not needed. Every
year, inefficient lighting wastes enormous financial resources, and bad illumination creates
hazardous conditions (Chaitanya et al, 2015). According to Saad (2013), energy efficient
technologies and design mechanisms can significantly reduce street lighting expenses. The use of
automation and remote management technologies to regulate street lighting is a current trend (Saad
et al, 2013). Automation, power usage, and cost effectiveness are the primary considerations of
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today's field technology. Automation aims to reduce labor by utilizing intelligent systems. Power
conservation is always a priority because power sources are dwindling for a variety of reasons. As
the requirement grows, it is critical to design a cost-effective system. Automatic street light control
solutions are being introduced to address this issue. Beacon light, road way light, and security light
are the three basic applications of streetlight, each needing a different type of light and positioning
(Innocent, 2019). Streetlighting can also be used in factories, residences, universities, farms,
conference centers, and other public places. Uthman (2019..) states that streetlights ensure the safe,
quick, and efficient flow of people and products from one location to another. Most of the time, we
see street lights on long after daybreak when there is no one there who need light; this wastes
power; therefore, having an automatic street light control system that turns on/off street lights when
ambient light falls below a certain intensity will save power. The manpower required to regulate the
light saves a lot of money, so by adopting an automatic system, we can save money on people and
cut down on unnecessary power use. We also know that there is no essential of street light during
the day; this problem is overcome by LDR sensor. During the day, the LDR sensor turns off the
street light. When the light intensity is low, the LDR kicks in and the light comes on.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Manual control street lighting systems consume a significant portion of the city's power supply in a
properly illuminated society, owing to their ongoing operation during the night, and some of these
streetlights shine during the day due to their manual nature (Kadirova and Kajtsanov 2017). Manual
control is prone to inaccuracy and wastes energy, and manually dimming at midnight is impractical.
Furthermore, manually tracking the light level is impractical. Several research have attempted to
propose some control strategy and methods for the streetlight system, such studies include; Design
and Construction of Authomated Street Lighting System by Awodeyi (2018), Authomatic Street
Light Control System Using LDR and Microcontroller by Pathak et al. (2015) automatic streetlight
intensity control and road safety module using embedded system and many others. Our research
therefore, focuses on the design and construction of an automatic street light control system using
on the LM358 and Light Dependent Resistor (LDR).

This project provides a solution to the improper use of street lighting, by removing manpower and
lowering power consumption. Manual work will be eliminated by employing this method. When the
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sun dips below the visible zone of human eyes, the street lights automatically turn on and turn off
(i.e when ample amount of light is available). As the light sensor, a Light Dependent Resistor
(LDR) is used, we can operate the streetlight automatically by using the LDR; when there is plenty
of light, the streetlight will be turned OFF, and when it is dark, the light will be turned ON. This
system operates in accordance with the varying sunlight. When the LDR receives enough light, its
resistance falls, resulting in a low voltage drop across it, which turns off the street light. When it is
dark, its resistance rises, leading the voltage applied across it to rise. At this point, the street light
will switch on. The relay and BC457 transistor are used in this instance to switch the streetlight.

1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study

The main aim of this project is to design and construct an automatic street light control system.
Specific objectives of the study are:

1 To construct and test the designed system.

2 To provide lighting to the streets such that minimum possible power is consumed.
3 To ensured that street lights are on only when they are needed.
4 To reduce the use of manpower in the operation of streets lights.

1.4 Significance of the Study

This research work will be significant to urban and rural area, all road users, the government, and
the engineering community as they benefit from this study. The study is beneficial to urban and
ruler area, as it enhances human sights for those pedestrians on the walkways at night and for
drivers which leads to reduce accidents, reduced crime/robbery, reduces human effort most
especially government agencies that are directly involved in traffic control, and improve social and
economic benefits of the people like long distant travelers and night markets. The study is useful to
the government as this design can drastically reduce the cost of running street lights on our roads.
The engineering academic community will also find the study useful, because it will serve as basic
information for researchers who wish to carry out further study on the topic. The project is
significant in delivering street light to everyone with savings of energy and power.

1.5 Scope of the Study

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The study presents an Automatic Street Light Control System using LM358 Comparator IC and
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR). The design and construction of this project is limited to the
following main components; LDR, LM358 IC, Potentiometer, Resistors, Transistors, Diodes,
Capacitor, LED, Relay, step down transformer and voltage regulator (LM7812).
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CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Theoretical Framework

Under this we present brief information on theory of the components used in the design of
automatic Street light Control system using Light dependent resistor (LDR) and LM358.

2.1.1 Introduction

The whole circuit is based on IC LM358 which is basically an operational amplifier that is
configured in a voltage comparator and LDR (Light depending resistor), whose resistance is based
upon the quantity of the light falling on it, is use here as the main component, it acts as a light/dark
sensor. Along with these, a few other components will also be utilized.

This automatic Street Light controller Circuit works on the op-amp comparator principle. A voltage
comparator is simply a circuit which compares the voltage at its input terminals and switches the
output to either high or low depending upon which input terminal was high. A voltage comparator
can be of two types either inverting type or non-inverting type. This is determined by whether the
input voltage is given to the inverting terminal or non-inverting terminal. When the input at the non-
inverting terminal is high, the output goes high and vice versa.The output of the comparator is
usually in phase with any signal at the non-inverting input while a signal at the inverting input is
180° out of phase with the output.The figure below shows the symbol of an OP-AMP voltage
comparator.

Figure 1: Symbol of OP-AMP Voltage comparator

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2.1.2 Light Dependent Resistor

Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs) are very useful especially in light/dark sensor circuits. Normally
the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as 1000000(1M) ohms, but when they are
illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically. The working principle of an LDR is
photoconductivity. Photo conductivity is an optical phenomenon in which the materials
conductivity is increased when light is absorbed by the material (i.e., when light falls on it). When
the photons fall on the device, the electrons in the valence band of the semiconductor material are
excited to the conduction band. These photons in the incident light needed to have energy greater
than the band gap of the semiconductor material to make the electrons jump from the valence band
to the conduction band. Hence when light having enough energy strikes on the device, more and
more electrons are excited to the conduction band which results in large number of charge carriers.
Due to these charge carriers the conductivity of LDR increases, decreasing its resistivity. LDR is an
electronic sensor that senses the presence of light. When light falls on the top surface of the LDR,
its resistance becomes lower and when there is low light, its resistance becomes higher. The
resistivity is inversely proportioned to the intensity of light exposed on LDR active surface. This
change in resistance can be used to determine changes in voltage and current. In relation to this
present study, the variability of LDR resistance will be used to provide a variable voltage at the
non-inverting terminal (pin 3) of the comparator. Practical LDRs are the light dependent resistors
available in the market which are used for practical implications in various electronic circuits.
Practical LDRs are available in variety of sizes and package styles, the most popular size is having a
face diameter of roughly 10mm. The practical LDR and the circuit symbol is shown in the figure
below
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Figure 2: Diagram of Practical LDR and its Symbol

2.1.3 Comparator

A Comparator is an electronic decision-making circuit that makes use of an operational amplifier’s

very high gain in its open-loop state, that is, there is no feedback resistor. The Op-amp
comparator compares one analogue voltage level with another analogue voltage level, or some
preset reference voltage, VREF and produces an output signal based on this voltage comparison. In
other words, the op-amp voltage comparator compares the magnitudes of two voltage inputs and
determines which is the larger of the two (Andrew, 2015). Due to the very high open-loop gain of
the operational amplifier, using it with positive feedback or even with no feedback at all causes the
output to saturate to its supply rail producing one of two distinct output voltages depending on the
relative values of its two inputs. This bi-stable behavior is non-linear and forms the basis of op-amp
comparator and Schmitt trigger circuits. The output stages of dedicated comparators, such as the
single LM311, the dual LM393 or the quad LM339 are designed to operate in their saturation
regions allowing these voltage comparator circuits to be widely used in analogue-to-digital
converter applications and for various types of voltage level detection circuits (Andrew, 2015).

2.1.3.1 LM358 IC (Operational Amplifier)

This is a dual op-amp IC integrated with two op-amps powered by a common power supply. The
differential input voltage range can be equal to that of power supply voltage. The default input
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offset voltage is very low which is of magnitude 2mV. The typical supply current is 500uA
independent of the supply voltage range and a maximum current of 700uA. The operating
temperature ranges from 0˚C to 70˚C at ambient whereas the maximum junction temperature can be
up to 150˚C. (Bhanu, 2014). This IC is to serve as an Op-amp voltage comparator in this project, to
compare two voltages at the inverting and non-inverting input terminals to indicate which is larger
and give out the output depending on which input is low or high. They are often used, for example,
to check whether an input has reached some predetermined value. As shown in Figure 4, the IC
LM358 is an 8pin IC in which the pin 2 is known as the inverting terminal because it is connected
to the negative potential while pin 3 is known as the non-inverting terminal. The pin 2 is connected
to the reference voltage which is set as a standard voltage in the circuit while pin 3 is connected to
the input voltage. Now if we apply the input voltage to the IC, it will compare the input voltage to
the reference voltage and if the voltage goes low then the output of the comparator goes low. If the
voltage is equal to the reference voltage, then the output of the comparator is high.(Chaitalee &
Ananta, 2014)

Figure 3: Circuit symbol of LM358 IC

LM358 has a wider output voltage swing, it operates down to a lower supply voltage and also a dual
(two in one package). The low power drain makes the LM358 a good choice for battery operation.
In some op amps, the input can be as close to negative as a few mV, LM358 is an example of that. It
can also be called a single supply op amp, as it can be operated from 0 to 12V and can accept inputs
down to zero volts, but the output is not expected to be zero for a unity gain followed with zero
input. However, it performs well so far as you expect an output of say 100mV to 10V. Often, one
prefers to bias this single supply op amp at half the supply voltage, so that with 0 to 12V applied,
you may tie the positive input at 6V, and connect a signal through a capacitor to an inverting
amplifier, say with Ri of 10k and Rf of 100k. The output will have a quiescent value of about 6V but
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can swing from 100mV to 10V. The figure below shows the Practical LM358 IC and its pin
configuration.

Figure 4: Practical LM358 and its pin configuration

The table below shows the description of the pins as seen in figure 4 above.

Table 1: Pin Configuration of LM358.

Pin Number Pin Name Description

1 OUTPUT 1 This pin is the output of the first operational amplifier

2 INPUT 1 - This pin is the inverting input of the first Op-Amp

3 INPUT + This pin is the non-inverting input of the first Op-Amp.

4 GND This is the ground or negative supply to the Op-Amp

5 INPUT 2 + This pin is the non-inverting input of the second op-amp

6 INPUT 2 - This pin is the inverting input of the second Op-Amp

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7 OUTPUT 2 This pin is the output of the second Op-Amp

8 VCC This pin is the positive voltage supply to both Op-amp

 Principle of Operation of LM358 IC

When we desire to use LM358 IC as comparator, we can give it a voltage from 3V to 32V.I If we
want to use it as an operational amplifier then we will give the voltage from ±1.6V to ±16V. Pin 8
is the main power supply input. LM-358 contains two operational amplifier the inputs of the first
amplifier is pin 2 and pin 3 and the output is pin 1, if we want to use the second amplifier the inputs
for this amplifier is at pin 5 and 6 and the output is at pin 7. If we want to compare two signals then
we will give one signal at pin 2 and the other signal at pin 3. The voltage of pin 2 will be compared
with that of pin 3, and the voltage of pin 6 is compared with that of pin 5, corresponding to two
independent outputs: 1OUT and 2OUT. On account of this project, we make use of the first
operational amplifier to compare voltages. Pins 2 and 3 of the IC are used to compare the voltages
and gives us the output in return. The second operational amplifier is used to amplify voltage when
the different between the voltage at pin 2 and 3 is small. In This project, LDR and 10k resistor
which form a potential divider is used to provide a variable voltage at the non-inverting input (i.e
pin 3), the second signal is built around the inverting terminal with the help of a 10k potentiometer
which is used to set a threshold / reference voltage at the inverting input (pin 2).It grants half of the
supply voltage to the inverting input (pin 2).When the input at non-inverting (+) pin 3, is greater
than input at inverting input (-) pin 2, the output of the op-amps will be high. Whereas, when the
input at non-inverting (+) pin 3 is less than that of the inverting terminal (-) pin 2 the output of the
first op-amp will be low.

2.1.4 Resistor

A resistor is a passive two terminal electric circuit element that impedes the flow of current. When
this is done a voltage appears across the resistor's two wires. A resistor is also used to adjust signal
levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, among other uses. The value of a resistor which tells
us to what extent it impedes current is measured in Ohms. The resistance of a resistor can be read
off by the colour bands on the body following a standard colour coding. There are various types of
resistors relative to the material used in the makeup. Resistors are also classified as fixed and
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variable. Fixed resistors have resistance values that only change slightly with temperature, time and
operating voltage. In this work, fixed resistors of various values are used as protective devices for
other components. Some are also used for biasing transistors in the switching unit. The figure below
shows a practical resistor and the symbol.

Figure 5: Electrical Symbol of a Resistor and Different kinds of

Practical resistors

2.1.5 Relays

A relay is simply an electromagnetic switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically

operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays are
used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical
isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by
one signal. A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric
motor or other loads is called a contractor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving
parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating
characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from
overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital
instruments still called "protective relays". Relays allow a small current flow circuit to control a
higher current circuit. Several designs of relays are in use today, 3-pin, 4-pin, 5-pin, and 6-pin,
single switch, or dual switches. Relays which come in various sizes, ratings, and applications, are
used as remote-control switches. Fig. 6 shows a practical relay.
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Figure 6: A Practical Relay and its circuit symbol.

2.1.6 Diodes

A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in one direction; it
has low resistance in one direction and high resistance in the other. Diodes are most used for
rectification. A network of four diodes is used in this work to rectify the alternating current coming
from the transformer into a direct current. The diode used in this project is IN4007. The electrical
symbol of a diode is shown in figure 7 below. In relation to this present project, the diode is used to
protect the transistor from the brief high voltage produced when the load is switched off. It is used
simply to prevent back emf.

Figure 7: Symbol of a Diode

2.1.7 Transformer

A transformer is a static or stationary piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in one
circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. It can raise or
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lower the voltage in a circuit but with a corresponding decrease or increase in current.(Theraja,
1994) The physical basis of a transformer is mutual induction between two circuits linked by a
common magnetic flux. In its simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils which are electrically
separated but magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance as shown in Figure 2.5. The two
coils possess high mutual inductance. If one coil is connected to a source of alternating voltage, an
alternating flux is set up in the laminated core, most of which is linked with the coil in which is
linked with the other coil in which it produces mutual inductance e.m.f. If the second coil circuit is
closed, current flows in it and so electric energy is transferred from the first coil to the second coil.
The first coil, in which electric energy is fed from the ac supply mains is called primary winding
and the other from which energy is drawn out, is called secondary winding.(Bhanu, 2014)
Summarily, a transformer is a device that transfer electric power from one circuit to another without
a change of frequency by electromagnetic induction whereby the two electric circuit are in mutual
inductive influence of each other.

Figure 8: Transformer (Ayala John, 2016).

2.1.8 Voltage regulator

A voltage regulator is a system designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level in an

electronic system. It basically steps down the input voltage to the desired level and keeps it in that
same level during the supply. This makes sure that even when a load is applied the voltage does not
drop. Voltage regulators are used in computers, alternators, power generator plants etc. The voltage
regulator used in this work is a LM 7809 IC. The diagram of a voltage regulator is shown below:
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Figure 9: Diagram of a Voltage Regulator

In relation to this project LM7812 voltage regulator was used. LM7812 is a fixed voltage linear
regulator that can output 12V at up to 1A current with an input voltage range of 14 – 35V.It’s a
positive voltage regulator IC of LM78xx series that is manufactured by many different electronic
components manufacturers. The IC provides fixed 12V output voltage no matter if the input voltage
is fluctuating or changing continuously but the input voltage should not exceed 35V which is the
maximum input voltage the IC is capable to handle. Moreover, the input voltage should not be less
than 14V that is the minimum input voltage requirement of the IC to provide fixed 12V output.
Although this IC is designed for fixed output, the output can also be adjusted if required by the user
with the help of only two external resistors.

Application of LM7812

i. Voltage step down circuits

ii. 12V Power Supplies
iii. Motor Drivers
iv. Battery Chargers
v. Solar Power Supplies
vi. Microcontroller Related Applications

 2.1.9 Capacitor

A capacitor is a simple passive device that can store an electrical charge on its plates when it
is connected to a voltage source. Capacitor could store energy in the form of an electrical charge
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producing a potential difference across its plates. In its basic form, a capacitor consists of two or
more parallel conductive plates which are not connected or touching each other but are electrically
separated either by air or by some form of a good insulating material (dielectric). In relation to the
present work, two capacitors with values of 1000uf and 10uf respectively are utilized. The 1000uf
capacitor serves as a signal booster, it amplifies the voltage from the secondary coin of the
transformer to a value suitable for the operation of the regulator. While the 10uf capacitor is used to
filter ripples. The electrical symbol of a capacitor is shown in figure 8 below.

Figure 10: Circuit symbol of a Capacitor

2.1.10 Light Emitting Diode:

A light-emitting diode (LED) emits light when a small current is passed through it. It looks sort of a
little lightweight bulb with 2 legs. The longer leg is the positive connection and the shorter leg is the
negative connection. In our project, we can use LED as output. LED gets turn ON/OFF according to
sensor data. In LEDs current flows only in one direction. An LED is a two-terminal device known
as Cathode and Anode. The long terminal is termed Anode, and therefore the shorter terminal is
termed Cathode. You cannot directly connect the LED to a battery or voltage source. An LED
should be used with an electrical device to limit the quantity of current flowing through the LED. In
this project a green LED will be used as power detector and the LED will be protected by 1K
resistor

2.1.11 Transistor

Transistors are at the very core of today's electronics technology. It is a three terminal device which
consists of three distinct layers. Two of them are doped to give one type of semiconductor and the
third the opposite type. There may be two n-type and one p-type or two p-type or one n-type layers
of semiconductor; thus, the major types of transistors- NPN and PNP. The three terminals of the
transistor are called the base (which often serves as the input), emitter (which emits charges), and
the collector (which collects the charge carriers). The transistor can be considered as two P-N
junctions placed back-to-back. One of these (the base emitter) junction is forward biased, whilst the
other (the base collector) junction is reverse biased. It is found that when current is made to flow in
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the base emitter junction a larger current flow in the collector circuit. The transistor can be used as
an amplifier or as a switch. In this project work, a bipolar junction transistor (NPN) is used for the
purpose of switching. The electric symbol of transistors is shown in figure 10.

PNP NPN

Figure 11: Electric Symbol of the PNP and NPN transistor

In this project, BC 547 NPN transistor is used as a switch that will drive the relay.

The figure below shows a practical BC547 and its symbol

Figure 12: Diagram of BC547 Transistor and its simple.

2.2 Conceptual Framework

In this section the concept behind the working of the Automatic street controller system is
discussed. This discussion is done considering the various working units of the device.

2.2.1 Development of Block diagram

The figure below shows the functional units of the Automatic Street light circuit. The block diagram
shows also the interconnection between the various units of the device.
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Sensory/Comparator
power Relay/Switching Output
Unit
Unit Unit Unit

Figure 14: Figure 13: Block Diagram of the Automatic Street light system

The Block diagram is simplify as shown below

AC Mains Transformer Rectification & Regulation

Smoothening

Sensor
Comparator

Relay Transistor

AC Light

Figure 14: A Simplified Block Diagram of the Automatic Street light system
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2.2.1.1 Power Supply unit

The power supply unit is the unit that supplies the required power to the device. It is basically
designed to convert the alternating current from the mains to a suitable direct current. This DC is
regulated to ensure that there is no fluctuation in the power. The components used are sensitive to
fluctuations and spikes; hence the power supply unit is designed to ensure this is duly taken care of.
The power supply unit supplies 13.5V to the device. This is regulated to 12V for the sensory, and
display units. The power supply unit is made up of a transformer, a bridge rectifier circuit, a filter
circuit, and a voltage regulator. The figure below shows the block diagram of the power supply unit:

Transformer Rectifier Filter Regulator

Figure 15: Bloch Diagram of the power supply unit

The transformer steps down the 220/240VAC from the mains to 12V AC. This 12V is then passed
on to the rectifier circuit which converts the 12V AC to a unidirectional supply (DC). At this point,
the supply still contains little ripples of AC which can have destructive effect on the components
used in the device. Hence it is passed to the filter which makes it a pure DC with no ripples. Finally,
the regulator ensures the supply at this stage is stable and not fluctuating as effect of loading or
power supply from the mains.

2.2.1.2 Sensory /Comparator Unit

This unit comprises of the Light dependent Resistor (LDR), resistor (R 1), 10k Potentiometer (RV1)
and LM358 Comparator IC. The LDR acts as the light/dark sensor, it’s primarily responsible for
detecting light and darkness. The Resistor (R1) is known as the voltage divider resistor (voltage
limiting resistor) for LDR, it functions as a voltage limiting resistor for LDR. The Signal (output)
from the voltage divider circuit, in this case, the LDR is apply to IC pin 3 of the comparator-1. It is
use to creates a variable voltage at the non-inverting terminal (IC pin 3) of the comparator-1. The
10k potentiometer is used to set a reference / threshold voltage at the inverting terminal (IC Pin 2)
of the comparator-1, it is used to adjust the sensitivity of the circuit. This reference voltage will be
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compared with that from the LDR, by the comparator-1 of the LM358 IC to determine the output of
the IC, which will be applied to the base terminal of the transistor. This implies that, the
comparator-1 of LM358 IC compares the signal coming from the sensor (LDR) with the reference
voltage to determine the output which is then supply to the transistor.

2.2.1.2 Relay/ Switching Unit

This unit is responsible for making and breaking electrical contacts. The primary devices in this unit
include; transistors, resistors, and relays. The transistors which are used to drive the relays, conducts
when its base senses voltages from the outputs of the comparators. Transistors were used to swing
the collector current to the quantity required by the coils of the relays (Oduobuk & Ettah, 2014)

The relay has contact points which form the normally open and normally closed switches. It also
has energizing coil through which the switching contacts can be pulled together or drawn apart to
affect the open and close operations. If current enters through the coil of the relay, the metal core
becomes magnetized and attracts a strip of metal which closes the contacts that forms the open
switch and the switch then become open. If the energizing voltage demagnetizes the metal coil, the
metal strip is released to open the terminal and closes the terminal again (Nweke & Iwu, 2015) This
unit also consists of a capacitor (C1), LED (D1), and 1N4007 diode (D2). The capacitor along with
1k resistor (R2) acts as a drooping resistance, it reduces the output of the comparator. A green LED
is use in this unit for the purpose of indicating the presence of light in the circuit, the LED is
protected with 1k resistor.1N4007 diode (D2) is used to protect the relay coil from back emf.

2.2.1.4 Output Unit

The output unit consist of an AC bulb which is connected to the AC mains (240V/50Hz). The AC
bulb in this design represents the street light.

2.3 Review of related Empirical Studies

So many researches and work have been carried out with the main aim of designing and
implementing an energy efficient street light system. Some of them are reviewed below;

Ramli et al. (2015) designed a system that provided a safe environment in the night for road users
and pedestrians. The main objective was to use a low-cost microcontroller like an Arduino and to
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save energy. The modes used were controlled by an LDR and IR. The system could automatically
automate LEDs according to the flow of traffic. The system worked during the night and
concentrated at a concentrated street at an intersection. The LED came to an ON state when
movement was detected otherwise it turned off. According to the research, this design saved an
awesome measure of power. Maintenance cost was reduced and lifespan of the system was
increased

Akash et al. (2015) designed a lighting system that targeted the saving of energy and autonomous
operation with an immediate response to faults. Consumption of the street light for a specific area
could be accounted for from the system. Errors that occurred from manual operation was also
eliminated. The system could also be controlled from a PC at the control station or could be
automated. The design was based on the installation of light sensors in the circuits for the poles.
Current sensors reported status to the central system using GSM module; with the fault status, the
workman could easily locate the faulty street light thus reducing the time it would have taken to
search for faulty lamps. Information was collected at the end of each day and stored in the data
base. The information collected and stored in the database was made up of details of power
consumption, number of burning hours, interruptions and fault detection details; the location of
faulty street light, time of fault and time of repair. The system accomplished the feat of reducing the
time taken to repair faults compared to manual system where faults took days or months to be
detected for repairs was carried out

Isah (2015) designed and implanted an automatic street light control system based on UA741
operational amplifier which is configured as a Schmitt trigger and a light dependent resistor (LDR).
Amid the day the LDR faculties enough illumination and the security light goes OFF. Furthermore,
when darkness comes, resistance of the LDR increases tremendously and causes the light come
"ON'. Additionally, a transistor switching a 12V Relay is deployed to provide the switching
mechanism to activate the street lights connected in parallel. The need for manual operation of the
security lights is eliminated and much energy is saved that would have been otherwise wasted if the
user were to forget to power “OFF” the light at any point in time.

Achana et al. (2015) designed a system where the LEDs switches to an ON state when vehicle
movement is detected. The LED turns off after some seconds. The system consisted of 5 highlights.
 21

It automatically controlled the street light. i.e turned off during the day and turned on during the
night utilizing the LDR. It controlled the street light intensity through diming and brightening on
detecting an object. Objects were detected using PIR sensors. The system had a camera for security
purposes. Automatic fault detection i.e on failure of the 26 LEDs, fault messages are automatically
sent to the to the authorities using the GSM module technology. The feature of switching manually
with the use of a GSM device was also incorporated.

Harshitha et al. (2017) designed a system where the street LEDs lit up automatically at night and
turned off at daybreak. The light dependent resistors were also used to indicate the condition of the
LEDs for effective maintenance. This system was designed to run on automatic node. This
automatic mode controlled the algorithm for the sunrise and sunset and intensity of light.

2.4 Summary of literature review

This chapter reviewed various journal papers on automated street lighting systems. The analysis of
the designs, results and implications obtained in the literature review supports the fact that LED
lighting with automation and fault detection is more efficient than the traditional lighting system in
terms of cost, power consumption, and fault detection. It also shows that maintenance cost is
reduced because of the reduction in physical manpower required. It can be seen from the review of
empirical studies that some work had to do microcontroller based automatic street light system for
interfacing all other components together, GSM Module; used for sending SMS to the control
station. Components used for the construction of this project were also reviewed.
 22

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

3.1 Introduction

This chapter contains details of the circuit analysis and the circuit design. The design work done
here started with the selection of appropriate components. A stage-to-stage approach is used and
design analysis of the circuit depends upon the techniques for analysis using appropriated
relationship for the components in question. Values of all components used in the circuit are
obtained through the design and analysis of the circuit.

3.2 Circuit Analysis

3.2.1 Design calculations and analysis

3.2.1.1 Design of power supply unit

The power supply serves as input unit to the system. AC mains enter the circuit through this point.
In this unit, power is converted from AC to DC and then filtered. This unit consist of a step-down
transformer, voltage regulator diodes, capacitors. The operation of the power supply unit occurs in
three stages: the transformer stage, rectifier stage and filter stage. (Oduobuk & Ettah, 2014)

 Transformer stage:

A 220VAC/13.5VDC, 50Hz, 125mA step-down transformer was used in the circuit to

convert the 240V from the mains to 13.5V in the circuit. transformer rating was chosen to
ensure that after the rectification and filtration stage, the 12V needed for the operation of the
circuit is obtained.

 Rectifier Stage

In rectifier section, diodes were configured in a full wave bridge rectifier so as to boast the circuit
efficiency. The rectifier converst 13.5V AC voltage from the supply of the transformer output to
12V pulsating DC.
 23

Parameters required:

i. Diode 1N4007
ii. Voltage Regulator LM7812
iii. Capacitor

The rectifier circuit carries out rectification. Rectification is simply the process of removing the
negative part of the alternating current (AC), hence producing the pulsating direct current (DC). In
this work, this is achieved using the bridge rectifier which involves 4 diodes. Diodes only allow
current to flow in one direction. In the first half cycle of AC, diode D 1 and D2 are forward biased
and D3 and D4 are reversed biased. In the second half cycle (negative half), diode D 3 and D4 are
forward biased and D1 and D2 are reversed biased. This combination converts the negative half
cycle into positive. The diodes used in this circuit are 1N4007 PN junction diode. The circuit also
Contain an 1000uf capacitor which is primarily used to boost the 13.5V from the transformer to
14V which is the minimum input voltage required for the operation of the LM7812 regulator.In
selecting the diodes used, the voltage drop across the diodes was considered. The 1N4007 Diode an
average forward current of 1A maximum a peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) of 1000V and power
dissipation of 3W. A single silicon rectifier diode in forward conduction mode develops a voltage of
around 0.7 (but can be up to 2V).

The current rating of the diode was also considered too to ensure the current from the transformer is
not excessive. The diode used has a rating of 1A; as recorded in the data sheet in Appendix A.
Hence the 1000mA current from the transformer is safe. The figure below illustrates the
rectification process

D4 D1

D2 D3

. Figure 16: Schematic Representation of the Rectification Process

 24

 Filter stage

An electrolytic capacitor is used to filter the pulsating D.C voltage that comes out from the rectifier
section. During operation, the capacitor charges up (i.e. stores energy) during conduction of half
cycle thereby opposing any changes in voltage. Hence, filters out voltage pulsations. (Nweke &
Iwu, 2015)

 Filter Circuit:

This is a circuit that converts a pulsating output from a rectifier into a very steady DC level. This
circuit filters or smoothens out the pulses in the output. As seen, the output of various rectifier
circuits is pulsating. It has a DC value and some AC components called ripples. This type of output
is not useful in driving sophisticated electronic circuits and devices. Electronic circuits require a
very steady DC output that approaches the smoothness of a battery’s output.

Below is a schematic representation of the filtration process:

Filter

Figure 17: Schematic of the Filtration Process

The capacitor used in is a 1000µf, 50V as it is the nearest to the calculated value gotten as 3000µf,
V rated capacitor. This was chosen based on the calculation:

0.6 ×1 A
C1=
2VP−P × 100 Hz

0.6
C1= = 3000µf
200

 Diode 1N4007
 25

In selecting the diodes used, the voltage drop across the diodes was considered. Has an
average forward current of 1A maximum, a peak repetitive reverse voltage of 1000V and
power dissipation of 3W.

Pin Configuration:

Table 2: Description of the pins of 1N4007 Diode

Pin Number Pin name Description

1 Anode Current enters Anode

1 Cathode Current exits Cathode

Features:

i. Average forward currentis 1A

ii. Non-repetitive Peak current is 30A

iii. Reverse Current is 5 µA

iv. Peak repetitive Reverse Voltage is 1000V

v. Power Dissipation 3W

The reverse current of 5 µA is negligible. The power dissipation of the diode is 3W.

 Voltage Regulator LM 7812

Despite obtaining a DC voltage, it is important to regulate the voltage to ensure it is steady an

unregulated voltage will keep varying within a range of values and this will damage the
electronic components used in the circuit. In relation to the present study, LM358 voltage
regulator was used.The 78012 is a fixed voltage linear regulator that can output 12V at up to
1A/1.5A Current with input voltage range of 14-35V.
 26

Figure 17: Schematic diagram of LM7812

Key Features of 7812 Voltage Regulator

i. Fixed Voltage linear regulator

ii. 14.5 -35V input voltage range
iii. 12V fixed output voltage
iv. Output current (typical):1A
v. Peak current: 2.2A
vi. Dropout voltage: 2V

Basic Operation

For basic operation, no external operation components are required. Hook up the input voltage and
ground and a 12V available on the output.

Power Dissipation

Linear regulators have a less ripple on their outputs compared to DC-DC converters that can be
used for the same basic purpose, but the trade-off is that the linear regulators also tend to dissipate
more heat in the process. The reason is the linear regulator uses a series of pass transistor on its
output to drop the excess voltage.

The power dissipation of the linear regulator is dependent on the difference between the input
voltage (Vin) and the output voltage (Vout) along the amount of current this being drawn from the
regulator. The larger the voltage difference is between Vin and Vout, the higher the power
dissipation will be which limits how much current can be drawn from the device.

The power dissipation of the 7812 device is easily calculated as :

 27

Power dissipation=(Vin-Vout)× Iout

Suppose the 7812 input is 15V and it is providing 1A of Current, then :

Power Dissipation =(15V-12V)×1A

=3W

So, it will need to dissipate 3W of power.

3.2.1.2 Design Calculation of Power Indicator

A red LED was used for the purpose of indicating the presence of power in the circuit. The LED
was protected by a 1kresistor. The resistor used was chosen based on the calculation below:

LED characteristics:

Maximum voltage = 2V

Maximum current = 0.02A

From ohm’s law;

V = IR
∆V
R=
I
V s−V f
R1 = (George, 2014)
I

Where; Vs = Supply voltage

Vf = Forward current
I = Forward current
12−2
R= = 500 Ohms
0.02

The LED was protected by a 1kὨ resistor, as it is the only standard resistance value closest to the
calculated value.
 28

3.2.1.3 Design calculations of the Sensory and comparator Unit

 Calculation of the Voltage Divider Resistor for a Light Dependent Resistor

In general, the value of LDR resistance is about 500 Ohms in bright light condition and about
200 kilo-Ohms in dark condition (Justelectrogo, 2021). Taking this values as the minimum (R min)
and maximum (Rmax) value of LDR respectively, for the extreme condition of our environment
i.e the bright light and dark conditions. The voltage divider resistor/ voltage limiting resistor R 6,
to LDR is calculated by following the work of (Markus, 2017) as follows:

R6 = √ Rmin . Rmax

According to Markus (2017), this guarantees that we cover the largest interval for the output

Taking Rmin = 500 Ohms (i.e. Resistance of LDR in bright light condition) and R max = 200kilo-
Ohms = 200000Ohms (i.e., resistance of LDR in dark condition). Hence;

R6 = √ 500 X 20000 = 10000 Ohms = 10k

 Potentiometer

A 10k potentiometer is used in this design. The potentiometer is used to set a reference voltage at
the inverting terminal in this case pin3 of the IC. it is therefore, used to adjust the sensitivity of the
system (device).

 LM358 IC

This is a dual op-amp IC integrated with two op-amps powered by a common power supply.it has
the following key features;

i. Integrated with two Op-Amps labeled UA & UB in a single package

ii. Wide power supply Range
iii. Singe supply voltage – 3V to 32V
 29

iv. Dual supply – ±1.5V to ±16V

v. Input offset voltage of 2Mv
vi. supply current – 500u A to 700uAindependent of the supply voltage range

vii. The operating temperature ranges from 0˚C to 70˚C at ambient.

viii. the maximum junction temperature can be up to 150˚C

 Calculation of voltage divider resistors R4, and R5 for the second operational amplifier
(U2: B)
Resistor R4 and R5 were chosen as 5k and 10k respectively in such a way to divide the voltage
from VCC to the input terminals of the second Op-amp (U2:B) and also to be able to obtain 8v at
the output. Therefore, R4 and R5 were calculated as follows

R5
Vout = V (Voltage Divider Rule)
R 4 +R cc
5

Where; R4 = 5k, R5 = 10k, Vcc = 12v, Vout = 8V, R4 ?, R5= ?

R5
Therefore, 8= ( 12 )
R 4+ R 5

8 R5
= By comparison, R5 = 8k. and R4 + R5 = 12
12 R 4+ R 5

but R5 = 8k, VCC = 12v

Hence, R4 = 12- 8 = 4k

Therefore, R4 = 4k and R5 = 8k. We used 5k and 10k since they are standard values and are also
close to the calculated values

3.2.1.4 Design Calculations of the Relay/ Switching Unit

 BC547
 30

BC547 transistor is used. BC547 transistor has the following key features;

i. Transistor Type: NPN
ii. Max Collector Current (IC): 100mA
iii. VBE (emitter-base voltage) = 0. 6V
iv. IB (base current) = 5ma
v. Collector-Emitter Voltage (VCE): 45V
vi. Max Collector-Base Voltage (VCB): 50V
vii. Max Collector Dissipation (Pc): 500 milliwatt
viii. Max Transition Frequency (fT): 300 MHz
ix. Minimum & Maximum DC Current Gain (hFE): 110 – 800
x. Max Storage & Operating temperature Should Be: -65 to +150 Centigrade
xi. Low Noise: 2-10 dB
xii. The gain of DC current (hFE) = 800
xiii. The polarity of the transistor is NPN
xiv. The transition frequency is 300MHz
xv. Power dissipation is 625Mw
 Design of Voltage divider biasing circuit
Known values; VCC = 12V, VBE =0.6, VCE = 0.2

From datasheet, BC547 required a maximum collector current of 100 mA. Thus, the collector
resistance R2 was obtained using the expression below

V CC−V CE
RC = where, VCC = 12V, VCE = 0.2, IC = 100mA = 0.1A
IC

12−0.2
RC = = 118 Ohms.
0.1

100 Ohm resistor was used since it’s closer to the calculated value of 118 Ohm and to have more
current.
 31

In a similar way, the base resistor of the BC547 transistor R 3 choosing on the account that from the
datasheet of BC547, it requires a base current of at least 5mA to be saturated. Therefore, the base
resistor was calculated by applying ohm’s law as shown below.

V CC−V BE
RB = where VCC = supply voltage to the base of the transistor. VCC = 8v in this regard.
IB

VBE = 0.6, IB = 5 mA = 0.005 A

8−0.6
RB = = 1480 Ohm or 1.48k
0.005

Thus, 1k resitor was used to make sure that we have more current to fully saturate the transistor.

 Relay

A 12V DC, 400 Ohm coil relay was used in this design. The relay was chosen since 12V DC
relay switches are the best solution for full voltage applications, as they allow a low current flow
circuit to control a high current flow circuit. 1N4007 diode was connected across the coil of the
relay for protection and prevention of back emf.

3.3 Simulation Mode

The Automatic Street Light Controller Switch Circuit as designed below was simulated using
simulation software (Proteus 8 Professional). The circuit functioned as expected. The figure below
shows the circuit as connected on the Proteus software interface.
 32

Figure 18: Simulation Model

3.4 Circuit Diagram

The figure below shows an automatic street light controller switch circuit.
 33

Figure 19: Circuit diagram of automatic street light controller

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 CONSTRUCTION, TESTING, RESULTS, AND DISCUSSION

 34

This chapter presents details of the construction of the device, its testing and the results obtained
from testing the device.

4.1 Construction

In accordance with the results of the calculations and analysis, the required components were
obtained and connected in the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram. The components used are
shown in table 3.

Table 3: Components used in the construction.

Component Name Quantity

LM358 comparator IC1 1

LM7812 IC2 1
 35

BC547 Transistor (T1) 1

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR1) 1

10K Potentiometer (RV1)   1

100 Ohm resistor (R2) 1

1K ohm Resistor (R1, R3) 2

5K Ohm Resistor (R4) 1

10K ohm Resistor (R5, R6) 2

10uf Capacitor (C1) 1

1000uf Capacitor 1

1N4007 Diode (D1=D2=D3=D4=D5) 5

220VAC/13.5VDC, 125mA Transformer 1

Green LED (D1) 1

Plug head for power input 1

Connecting Wires

4.1.1 Construction on breadboard

The system as designed was mounted on the breadboard to ascertain practically the workability of
the design. When the circuit was fully connected, it was connected to power source and found to be
 36

working as expected. The circuit was dismantled and assembled again and the results obtained were
as previously obtained from the first assembly.

4.1.2 Construction on vero board

After confirming the circuit's functionality and dependability, it was transferred to the Vero-board.
The Vero board is a breadboard version on which circuits confirmed to be functional on the
breadboard are permanently soldered in the exact breadboard configurations. The soldering process
began with continuity established at the necessary points, and components with polarities were
correctly placed. The soldering process was then carefully and successfully completed, ensuring
that there was no unnecessary bridge between the circuit's terminals.

Figure 20: Construction layout on Vero Board.

4.2 Testing
 37

The constructed work was tested. The voltage and current values expected at various points
of the circuit were confirmed to be within exact values. The working of the device was confirmed.
The street light turns ON when the Light Dependent resistor (LDR) sense darkness and Turns OFF
when light falls on the LDR surface. The design was again tested for 5 day to determine the time it
comes ON (when it is dark) and the time it goes OFF (when it senses light).The observation was
presented in a tabula form as shown.

DAYS TESTED TIME IT CAME TIME IT WENT OFF

ON

Monday 6.59pm 6. 35am

Tuesday 7.00pm 6.37am

Wednesday 7.01pm 6.35am

Thursday 7.03pm 6.35am

Friday 7.00pm 6.34am

Average time ON = Average time OFF =

7.00pm 6.35am

Table 4: The ON and OFF time of the controller for five days.

The table above shows that the controller was ON for 11 hrs, 35mins per day (7.00pm-6.35am).
11hrs 35mins=11.583hrs.

The total energy consumed for 5 days of operation is calculated as follows.

Total energy Consumed = power (p) x time (t)

 38

Where, time (t) = 11.583hrs, power = 10W (using bulb rated 10W).

Hence, Total energy consumed = 10W x11.583hrs =115.83Wh = 0.116KWh

Therefore, the total electrical energy consumed with the use of the controller per day is 0.116KWh.
Total electrical energy consumption per day (24hrs) without the use of the controller is 10W x 24hrs
= 0.360KWh. Total electrical energy saved per day is calculated using the expression;

Total energy saved per day = Total electrical energy consumed per day – Total electrical energy
consumed with the use of the controller

Total energy saved per day = 0.360KWh – 0.116KWh = 0.244KWh

The electrical energy saved in percentage is then calculated as;

Total Energy saved per day

Electrical energy saved in Percentage (%) = x100
total energy consumed per day

0.244 KWh
= X 100 = 67.7%
0.360 KWh

This illustrates how the design, using a 10W=0.01KW energy-saving bulb, saved 67.7% of
electrical energy. The street light's power rating was considered when calculating the total amount
of electrical energy used. This implies that the power rating of the street lights will determine the
overall amount of electrical energy that would be saved by using this design. Implementing this
design will therefore lower the cost of maintaining the street light. This will in turn help to save
money that can then be used for other essential infrastructure.
 39

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

From the successful design and construction of the automatic street light controller system using
LDR and LM358, conclusions and recommendations were drawn as follows:

5.1 Conclusion

An automatic street light controller system was successfully designed and built at the end of the
project. The automatic street light controller system based on LDR and LM358 saves a significant
amount of electricity that would otherwise be wasted in a conventional street lighting system. Based
on the design outcome, the design and construction of the automatic street light controller were
successful; readings were taken to determine its functionality, and it was concluded that
implementing this design would reduce the operating costs of the street lighting system.

5.2 Recommendation

We recommend that a rechargeable solar-powered DC source should be used instead of power

rectification. The system can be powered by a battery that is charged during the day by harvesting
solar energy via a solar cell. Sunlight energy can be stored and inverted from DC voltage to AC
voltage using a sun tie converter. The alternating current voltage can be increased and fed into the
power grid. The alternating current voltage from the power grid can be stepped down, rectified, and
used to power the circuit. Meanwhile, the street light can be powered by alternating current voltage,
which is controlled by a relay switch connected to the circuit's switching part.. The above-
mentioned strategy will enable us to harvest solar energy in an effective way for the operation of the
circuit.
 40

REFERENCES

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automatic.html.
 42

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I

Datasheet of LM7812 IC
 43

APPENDIX II

Datasheet of LM358 Dual OP-AMP IC

 44

APPENDIX III

Datasheet of BC547 NPN Transistor