SITE PLANNING AND LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

I.0 INTRODUCTION TO SITE PLANNING AND LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

SITE PLANNING – is the art and science of arranging the uses of portions of land

SITE PLANNER – is the profession that designates the uses of portions of land in detail by:
1. Selecting and analyzing sites
2. Forming land use plan
3. Organizing vehicular and pedestrian circulations
4. Developing visual form and material concepts
5. Re-adjusting the existing landforms by design grading
6. Providing proper drainage
7. Developing the construction details necessary to carry out the projects.
Site Planning is professionally practiced by:
1. Landscape architect
2. Architect
3. Planner
4. Civil engineer

LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Definifion and Application of the profession of landscape architecture from The American
Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA)

“Landscape architecture is the profession which applies artistic and scientific principles to the
research, planning, design and management of both natural and built environments. Practitioners of this
profession apply creative and technical skill and scientific, cultural and political knowledge in the planned
management of natural and constructed elements on the land with a concern for the stewardship and
conservation of natural, constructed and human resources. The resulting environments shall serve useful,
aesthetic, safe and enjoyable purposes.

BRIEF HISTORY:

In 1858, Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr., considered today the Father of Landscape Architecture, initiated a
project that would redefine the industrial city. Historians credit the design and achievements of Central
Park in New York City with having a tremendous evolutionary impact on park design, parkways, urban
open space, pedestrian and transportation systems. In fact, Olmsted’s innovations at Central Park
addressed and influenced the once of what is good in American urbanism and our environment today.

There were others before Olmsted of course. However, Olmsted with his intense social commitment
resulting from many world travels and his strong involvement with the pre-Red Cross organization during
Civil War focused on planning and design (landscape architecture) as the best way to solve so many of
the urban ills of the mid-1800’s. And there were others who followed him as well who applied and
improved on his innovations. The historical development of landscape architecture parallels, in many
ways, the unprecedented growth of the United State during the last half of 19th century and all of the 20th
century. Landscape architects became the leaders of social reform and making our cities livable. They
were the ones who offered counterpoint ideas for new town planning and the need for parks and open
space in our cities and suburbs. Landscape architects played leadership role in writing the legislation and
passage of the National Forest Act of 1898 and the National Park Act of 1916 establishing a world
precedent for the preservation and management of our unique natural resources.

ROLES OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT:

Three (3) main purposes of landscape architecture
1. Preservation
 2. Development
3. Enhancement
For the above landscape architecture purposes, the roles of the landscape architects include:
1. Investigation, selection and allocation of land and water resources for appropriate use.
2. Feasibility studies.
3. Formulation of graphic and wri5en criteria to govern the planning and design of land
construction program.
4. Preparation, review, and analysis of master plan for land use and development.
5. Production of overall site plans.
6. Landscape grading and landscape drainage plans, irrigation plans, planting plans, and
construction details.
7. Specificafions
8. Cost estimates and reports for land development.
9. Collaboration in the design of roads, bridges, and structures with respect to the functional
and aesthetic requirements of the areas on which they are to be placed.
10. Negotiation and arrangement for execution of land area projects.
11. Field observation and inspection of land area construction, restoration, and maintenance.

2.0 PARAMETERS OF SITE SELECTION AND ANALYSIS

2.1 Program development is based on the following factors:

1. Site requirements
2. Sizes
3. Types of building and site construction
4. Uses of materials

Two Methods of Site Selection:

1. Sites are considered within a general location and a choice is made of the one best meeting
the preliminary objectives.
a. Ideal sites - sites with least modificafion, best meets the project requirements
b. Alternative sites - possible sites
2. Site location is chosen by a client before the establishment of a program or even before a
use for the site has been determined.

2.2 Site Analysis

After the site has been selected, detailed program and site analysis are the next concerns.
1. Design of a Program - by research and investigation, it is a must to organize a logical and
accurate program requirements on which the design may be base. This program will be as
detailed and as complete as possible. We draw knowledge and views from the following:
a. Owner/s
b. Users of the project
c. Maintenance men
d. Planners with similar undertakings
e. With our collaborators
f. With anyone who can contribute constructive thoughts

2. Analyses of the Site - thoroughly investigate and analyze the project site. Not only
the specific site contained within the property boundaries, but the total site, which includes
the site environs to the horizon and beyond. This also includes:
a. The feel of the land
b. The site analysis program – a print f the topographic survey furnished by the
surveyor is taken into the field and, from actual site observation, all site features or
factors that supplement or interpret the survey are plo5ed on it in the planner’s
own symbols. Such additional information might include:
1.) Best views, poor views, objectionable views
2.) Which trees should be preserved and be removed
3.) Flood level, undrained and swampy land
 4.) Off-site nuisances
5.) Logical building areas of the site, logical points of ingress and egress.
6.) Sun diagram
7.) High and low points on the horizon give protection from or add force to sun
and wind

Factors included in the Analysis of Site and its environs:

1. Natural factors
a. Physiography and landforms
b. Soil & geology
c. Hydrology
d. Vegetation
e. Wetlands and Wildlife habitats
2. Cultural factors
a. Site Values/Social Impact
b. Behavior Settings & Users Requirements
c. Cultural/Historical Significance
d. Activity/Communication Linkages
e. Pertinent Laws (Local ordinances, land use and zoning, & others)
3. Aesthetic factors
a. Site Context
b. Images/symbols
c. Sensuous Quality

Resource Analysis Process:

1. Overlay Mapping System
- An overlay method of mapping natural determinants is often used to determine the
suitability of a particular site for prospective land uses.
2. Matrix
- A matrix can be developed of specific land use needs in relation to natural factors. For
each land use desired the inventory maps are interpreted for opportunities they offer.
3. Opportunity Maps
- Opportunity maps are overlaid to produce a composite map.
4. Constraint Maps
- Constraint to development must also be mapped for each component to show their
influence on development.
5. Suitability Maps
- Constraint maps are now overlaid to form a composite map. A composite maps
synthesis of opportunities and constraints is formed to produce a suitability map for a
prospective use.

Adaptation of Project to Site:

1. Plan Concept – perfection of the main design idea through collaboration of experts
planners
2. The Site-Structure Diagram – blocking of the architectural elements of the project. It is a
process of creative synthesis.
3. The Creative Aspect of Planning - understanding the idea to a clear concept.

ASSIGNMENT NO. 1: Draw and define the different Landforms

QUIZ NO.1: On Introduction to Site Planning and Landscape Architecture

3.0 ECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF SITE (NATURAL FACTORS)

3.1 PHYSIOGRAPHY and LANDFORMS

PHYSIOGRAPHY – is the description of landforms

GEOMORPHOLOGY – a branch of geology dealing with the origin and nature of landforms with
Emphasis on erosional processes.

LANDFORMS – irregularities of the earth’s surface.

Landforms are derived from:
1. Volcanic
2. Glacial or erosional processes
Landforms do not include man-made such as canals, ports and many harbors; and
geographic features such as deserts, forests, grasslands and impact craters.

GENERAL TYPES OF NATURAL LANDFORMS:

1. VALLEY – A low area of land between hills or mountains, typically with a river or
stream flowing through it.
2. PLAINS – A large area of flat land with few trees.
3. MOUNTAINS – A large natural elevation of the earth's surface rising abruptly from
the surrounding level, and a5aining an altitude greater than of a hill.
4. HILLS – A naturally raised area of land, not as high or craggy as a mountain.
6. VOLCANO - A mountain or hill, typically conical, having a crater or vent through
which lava, rock fragments, hot vapor, and gas.

SLOPE ANALYSIS:
Purposes:
1. To aid in recognizing areas on the site that lend themselves to building locations,
roads, parking, or play areas.
2. To show if construction is feasible.

METHODS OF EXPRESSING SLOPES:

1. Percentage (%) of Slope

- is expressed as the number of meters (feet) rise in 100 m (h). of horizontal
distance, referred as rise/run.
G = D/L x 100 where,
G = Gradient, %
D = Vertical rise, m (h)
L = Horizontal Distance, m (h)

2. Proporfion of Slope
- is expressed as a ratio of the horizontal distance to the vertical rise.
E.g.
The ratio of the Slope is 1:4

3. Degree of Slope
- is expressed in a degrees only on large scale earth-moving projects.
E.g.
Conversions: Ratio 1:4 to Percentage ¼ x 100 = 25%
to Degrees tan θ = ¼
θ = ¼ ‾ Tan
θ = 14.036º

Sample Problem:
Compute for the distance between contours with 5 meters contour interval and 10% slope.

Solution:
Given: I = 5 meters
G = 10%
D =?
 Substitute:
Use formula D = I/G x 100

D = 5 meters/10% x 100
D = 50 meters

SITE GRADING – is essential in developing the physical form of the site.

FUNCTIONAL & AESTHETIC REASONS FOR GRADING:

1. Grading for drainage
2. Grading to create berms. (berms can be created for noise and wind buffers)
3. Grading to create level areas.
4. Grading to modify existing landforms.
5. Grading for increased site interest.
6. Grading related to good views.
7. Grading related to bad views.
8. Grading to fit structures to site.
9. Grading to emphasize or control circulations.

Contour Map
1. Contours - are lines of equal elevation above the same reference plane
2. Contour interval – is the vertical distance between contours. It is always equal.

Characteristics of contours:
1. A uniform slope is indicated by evenly space contour.
2. Slope increases with closeness of contours. Lines close at the top of a slope and
wider apart at the bo5om indicate a concave slope. The reverse situation indicates
a convex slope.
3. Contour lines point up stream valleys.
4. Contour lines point downridges.
5. With the exception of an overhanging shelf or cave, contours never cross; they
merge only at vertical walls or cliffs.
6. Contours along the highest points of ridges or the lowest points of valleys are
always found in pairs, for each contour is a continuous line that closes on itself
either on or off the drawing and never splits or stops.
7. High points on summits or low points within a depression are indicated by spot
elevations.
8. Runoff water flows downhill perpendicular to contour lines.
9. Existing contours are shown as dashed lines with very sixth line in 1 h contour
interval drawn heavier. Contours are numbered either in the mass of the contour line
or on the uphill side. New contour lines for proposed grades are shown as solid lines.

QUIZ NO. 2: Physiography and Landforms

QUIZ NO. 3: Slope Analysis: Path and Road Computation and Layout.

3.0 ECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF SITE (NATURAL FACTORS)

3.2 GEOLOGY and SOIL

3.2.1 GEOLOGY
GEOLOGY – Does the science comprise the study of solid earth, the rocks of which it is
composed, and the processes by which it evolves.

GEOLOGICAL CYCLE - a continuous process by which rocks are created, changed from one
form to another, destroyed, and then formed again.
 Source: en.wikipedia.org
TYPES OF ROCKS (Cycle)
1. Igneous rock - are those that solidify from a molten or partially molten state.
These rocks are characterized as either extrusive or intrusive. E.g. Basalt, Granite

2. Sedimentary rock - Erosion and deposition play a key part in the formation of
sedimentary rocks. Wind, water, ice, and chemicals break down existing rock into
sediment that is then transported and deposited by wind, water, and glaciers.
As sediment accumulates with time (thousands of years) it becomes
compacted and cemented (lithified), eventually forming rock. Over a period
spanning hundreds of millions of years, oceans, rivers, and great deserts covered
Utah and deposited the sediment that has lithified into the sedimentary rocks we
see today. Some common sedimentary rocks are shale, sandstone, limestone, and
conglomerate. E.g. shale, limestone’s, sandstones

3. Metamorphic rock - are any rock type that has been altered by heat, pressure,
and/or the chemical action of fluids and gases. Metamorphic rocks are classified by
their structure and their dominant minerals. Metamorphic rock structure is either
foliated (has a definite planar structure) or nonfoliated (massive, without structure).
E.g. slate, marble

BEDROCK – is consolidated rock material lying at various depths below all points of the earth’s
surface.
SURFICIAL GEOLOGIC MATERIALS – above the bedrock, surficial geologic materials extend to
the surface soil. These materials maybe porous and serve as aquifers.
MASS MOVEMENT OF LAND SURFACE:
1. TECTONIC Movement – may be caused along faults, often
accompanying earthquakes.
2. SURFICIAL Processes – power by mass movement of material by the force gravity.
Often started by heavy rain or sudden thaws that saturate the rock and soil with
water to the point where gravity can cause movement. E.g. shock by an earthquake
Geological Survey provides various characteristics such as:
1. Distribution and thickness of rock formations
2. Terrain, slope, and slope stability
3. Drainage, permeability and water table
4. Frost susceptibility
5. Suitability for foundations
6. Earthquake stability
7. Excavation characteristics
8. Suitability for sub-grade fill or borrow and compacfion
 3.2.2. SOIL
SOIL – material above the bedrocks.

SOIL TYPES AND THEIR PROPERTIES (UNIFIED CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM)

Gravel and gravelly Red -Well-graded gravel, or gravel-sand mixture, little or no Excellent
soil fines.

Red -Poorly graded gravel, or gravel-sand mixtures, little or no Good

fines.

Yellow -Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt mixtures. Good

Yellow -Clayey-gravels, gravel-clay-sand mixtures. Good

Sand and sandy soils Red -Well-graded sands, or gravelly sands, little or no fines. Good

Red -Poorly graded sands, or gravelly sands, little or no fines. Fair

-Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures.

Yellow Fair
-Clayey sands, sand-clay mixtures
yellow Fair
Silts and clay LL Green -Inorganic silts, rock flour, Silty or clayey fine sands, or Fair
<50+ clayey silts with slight plasticity.

Green -Inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity, gravelly clays Fair

-Organic silt-clays or low plasticity.

Green Poor

Silts and clay LL Blue -Inorganic silts, micaceous or diatomaceous fine sandy or Poor
>50 silty soils, elastic silts.

Blue -Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat clays. Very Poor

Blue -Organic clays of medium to high plasticity, organic silts. Very Poor
Highly organic soils Orange -Pet and other highly organic soils Not suitable
+ LL indicates liquid limit.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

1. Texture – is a way to classify the range of particle sizes that make up the soil.
2. Color – is the most obvious feature observed in a soil profile
3. Density – the total volume of solids and voids in soil is commonly referred to as its
bulk volume or density.
4. Capillarity – refers to the upward movement of moisture or water above the water
table as a function of the fine textured soil. E.g. clay and silt have high capillarity.
5. Permeability – refers to the ability of soil to transmit water downward due to
gravity. E.g. coarse grained soil.
6. Shrinkage and swell (volume changes)- refers to the buildup and release of
capillary tensile stresses within soil due to water.
7. Cohesion – is the ability of a soil sample to bind together when moderately dry.
 Cohesionless soils (such as dry beach sand) are easy to excavate but vertical side
slopes cannot be maintained without support.

3.0 ECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF SITE (NATURAL FACTORS)

3.3 HYDROLOGY

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE – is the global process of the earth’s water movement. The energy that
operates the system comes from the sun and earth’s gravity.

source: www.reec.nsw.edu.au

EVAPORATION - is the process in which water turns to gas.

CONDENSATION – is the process in which gas turns to water.
PRECIPITATION - is the amount of water that does not fall on the ground.
TRANSPIRATION - is the process by which water vapor is evaporated and enters into
atmosphere.
INFILTRATION - (a) is the process of absorption and the natural downward movement of water
through the surface soil; (b) It is the process in which a fluid passes into the pores or interstices
of a solid
AQUIFERS – are water-bearing strata of rock, gravel, or sand in which groundwater is
stored.

SOURCES OF WATER:
1. Natural surface water from streams, rivers and lakes
2. Underground water

WATERSHED CONDITION:
The amount of runoff water that flows to a particular point in the landscape is
dependent upon the size of the watershed and its physical characteristics.
1. Complex land covers result in less runoff.
2. Soil type is the principal determinant of infiltration rates.
3. The placements of impervious surface within watershed can significantly
affect runoff rates.
4. A watershed with steep slopes, fight soils, high imperviousness, and moist, simple
surfaces will produce far more runoff than the same size watershed with flat slopes,
coarse soils, no imperviousness, and dry, complex plant communities.
WATER RESOURCE PROTECTION AREA DISTRICT:
1. Particular rock formation and the related land surface drainage area that drains to
these formations.
2. Wellhead water resource protection areas, which consist of surface and subsurface
areas surrounding public water supply wells or well fields where the quantity or
quality of groundwater is moving towards the wells may be impacted by land use
activity.
3. Surface water resource protection areas consist of area that drain on the surface or
underground to existing public water supply reservoirs.
4. The recharge water resources protection areas, which consist of highly permeable
geologic deposits (sand, gravel, silt, etc.).

3.0 ECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF SITE (NATURAL FACTORS)

3.4 MICRO-CLIMATE & ORIENTATION

3.4.1 MICROCLIMATE
Terminologies:
1. MICROCLIMATE - is the variation of the climate within a given area, usually
influenced by hills, hollow structures or proximity to the bodies of water.
2. GENERAL CLIMATE - the meteorological conditions (the prevailing environmental
conditions as they influence the prediction of weather), including temperature,
precipitation, and wind that characteristically prevail in a particular region.
3. MICROCLIMATE COMFORT - it is the condition of mind, which expresses
satisfaction with the thermal environment.
4. MICROCLIMATE CONTROL - these are the uses of man-made or artificial planting
and vegetation to control the climate within the area.
5. HUMIDITY – is the amount of water vapor in the air.
6. RELATIVE HUMIDITY – is the amount of vapor the air is holding expressed as a
percentage of the amount the air can hold at a particular temperature.
7. PRECIPITATION – is the amount of water that does not fall on the ground.
8. TEMPERATURE – degree of hotness and coldness that measures by a thermometer.

“Precipitation & temperature are two major factors affecting vegetation”.

Different Climate Zones and their unique temperature and moisture characteristics:
1. Hot Arid Regions – characterized by dry, hot summer temperature (>20ºC) and mild to
cool winters (>0ºC). Annual precipitation is low, however seasonal flash-floods may
occur. Freezing temperature is uncommon, extreme diurnal temperature fluctuations
are typical.

Site Planning and design: seek to balance daily temperature extremes by storing
energy, increasing humidity, and diverting desiccating winds.

2. Hot Humid Regions – characterized by hot summer temperature (>20ºC) and mild to
cool winter (>0ºC). Annual precipitation and humidity are high, with frequent rain
showers. Freezing temperatures are uncommon, and relatively minor diunal
temperature fluctuations are typical.

Site Planning and design: seek to increase shade, cooling from evaporation, and
breezes.

3. Temperate Regions – characterized by hot, often humid, summers (>20ºC) and cold
winter (>0ºC). Annual precipitation is fairly high. The region is subject to repetitive
freezing/thawing action, and significant seasonal temperature fluctuations are
common.
 Site Planning and design: seek to promote shade and evaporative cooling warm
periods, and block winds and promote heat gain in cool periods, without disrupting
favorable summer wind pa5ern.

4. Cold Regions – characterized by mild summer temperatures (>10º-20ºC) and very cold
winters (<0ºC). Annual precipitation is typically low. Region is subject to extreme
freezing/thawing action.

Site Planning and design: seek to control winter winds, and promote solar gain and
storage.

The Climatic design variables of human comfort in any given climate zone are:
1. SOLAR RADIATION – durationand intensity of thermal loading and absorption
(isolation)
2. AIR MOVEMENT – velocity and pattern
3. HUMIDITY – vapor pressure and air temperature

3.4.2 ORIENTATION

Terminologies:
1. ORIENTATION - strongly relates a building to the natural environment – the sun,
wind, weather pa5erns, topography, landscape, and views.
2. SUN ORIENTATION - refers the movement of sun from east-to-west. This is useful
in designing a structure and for locating the spaces inside the structure.
3. WIND ORIENTATION – refers to the source or directions of wind North-east and
South-west directions.

Environmental and built factors that influenced a building orientation:

1. Sun Orientation - heat, glare, light
2. Wind Orientation
3. Site conditions - topography, soil and geology, hydrology and vegetation
4. Views - corridors, scenic easements
5. Visual and acoustical – direction of objectionable noises
6. Local development pa5erns - land use and zoning, accessibility requirements
7. Environmental conditions – smoke, dust, odor

3.0 ECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF SITE (NATURAL FACTORS)

3.5 VEGETATIONS
“Vegetation is a good indicator of soil and microclimate.”

Common Forms of Plants

1. Trees
2. Shrubs and perennials
3. Groundcovers
4. Annuals
5. Turf

Major Functions of Plant Materials:

1. Aesthetic - visual principles of color, texture, scale and rhythm can be used to
create an aesthetically pleasing human environment.
2. Environmental Condition – The microclimate of an outdoor space can be changed
 through the careful placement of trees and shrubs to block excessive sun or wind.
3. Screening – Plant screens can provide privacy, mark boundaries, discourage
intruders, or block unpleasant views.
4. Circulation Control – Plant controls and directs movements of people, animals, or
vehicles.
5. Production – Plants provide food and shelter for wildlife. It can encourage the
presence of birds, bu5erflies or other forms of wildlife for human enjoyment.
6. Bioengineering and Other forms of structural Mitigation – The natural regenerative
tendency of plant material can be used to stabilized eroded banks, revitalized
damaged soils, or strengthen wildlife habitats.

Plant Classificafions according to Habitats:

1. TERRESTRIAL PLANT - Plants that live or survive on land (e.g. mango, rose, etc)
2. AERIAL PLANTS – Plants that live on trees or hang on air (e.g. orchids)
3. AQUATIC PLANTS - Plants that live in water (e.g. water hyacinth, lotus)

USES OF PLANTS:
A. Engineering Uses of Plants
1. Control solar radiation
2. Reduce glare
3. Control wind
4. Help clean the air
5. Absorb unwanted sound
6. Minimize erosion
B. Architectural and Aesthetic Uses of Plants
1. Provide enclosure
2. Overhead canopies
3. Control views
4. Provide privacy
5. Stand out as sculptural elements in the landscape
6. Provide naturalistic interest
7. Serve as backdrop
8. Provide color and texture in the landscape

3.0 ECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF SITE (NATURAL FACTORS)

3.6 WETLANDS & WILDLIFE HABITATS

WETLANDS – areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater at a

frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances
do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil
conditions. Examples: shrubs swamps, marshes, bogs, mangrove swamps, salt
marshes
.
Environmental Characteristics for Idenfificafion of Wetlands:
1. Vegetation. Prevalence of vegetation.
2. Soils. Soils that are saturated, flooded, or pounded long enough to develop
anaerobic condition (lack oxygen).
3. Hydrology. The area is inundated either permanently or periodically at mean
water depth < 6.6 h or the soil is saturated to the surface at some time during the
growing season of the prevalent vegetation. Indicators include drainage pattern,
drift lines, sediment deposition, watermarks, stream gage data and flood
predictions.
Wetlands Classificafions System:
1. MARINE – consists of Open Ocean over the continental shelf and its
associated high-energy coastline.
2. ESTUARINE – consists of deep-water tidal habitats and adjacent tidal wetlands that
are often semi-enclosed by land but open access to the ocean, and are occasionally
diluted by freshwater runoff from the land. (Estuaries & lagoons)
3. RIVERINE – includes all wetlands and deep-water habitats contained within a
channel that connects two bodies of standing water with two exceptions,
(a) wetlands dominated by trees, shrubs, persistent emergents, emergent
mosses or lichens, and
(b) habitats with water containing ocean-derived salts in excess of 0.5%.
4. LACUSTRINE – includes the following wetlands and deep-water habitats:
(a) Located in a depression or a dammed river channel,
(b) lacking trees, shrubs, persistent emergents, emergent mosses or lichens
greater than 30% area coverage,
(c) the total area exceeds 20 acres.
5. PALUSTRINE – includes all non-tidal wetlands dominated by trees, shrubs,
persistent emergents, emergent mosses or lichens and all wetlands that occur in
tidal waters where salinity of ocean-derived salts below 0.5%.

WILDLIFE – relates closely to habitats provided by plant communities.

Three Group Divisions:

1. Openland Wildlife. Includes birds and mammals commonly associated with
crop fields, meadows, pastures and non-forested overgrown lands.
2. Woodland Wildlife. These species need various combinations of a) grasses and
legumes; b) wild herbaceous upland plants; c) hardwood woody plants as just
mentioned; and d) cone-bearing shrubs such as pines, cedars and yews.
3. Wetland Wildlife. Wetland species include birds and mammals needing habitats
with a) wetland food plants or wild herbaceous plants of moist to wet sites,
exclusive of submerged or floating aquatic plants; b) shallow water development
with impoundments for the control of water where the depth generally does not
exceed 5h.; c) excavated ponds of impounded areas with ample supplies of water of
suitable quality and depth for fish and wildlife such as one quarter acre ponds of 6 ft
average depth; and d) streams.

4.0 SOCIAL & PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS

4.1 SITE VALUES/SOCIAL IMPACT

4.1.1. SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS

-Is the study of a community and its social and economic structure. It is
important in determining the feasibility of the project.
Questions ask:
-Who are the users of the project?
-Are the user’s needs being programmed into the project?

A. Market Analysis – is where socioeconomic feasibility is based.

DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS – population is the base of many land use

planning decisions.

Population trends in a local market area can identify the potential user or
Consumers. Included is population change by:
1. Birth
2. Deaths
3. Age
4. Sex
 5. Family size
6. Occupation
7. Income level
8. Housing accommodations
9. Tax rate
10. Assessment

B. Utilities, all utilities located on or adjacent to the site under study should
be shown graphically for consideration in site development.
Utilities are:
1. Potable Water, most critical utility for growth at the community level.

Primary Sources are:

-River
-Lakes
-Springs
-Subsurface (acquifers)

Types of Distribution System:

1. Gravity from reservoir
2. Direct pressure, water is pumped into a main.
2. Sanitary Systems, Sewage is usually disposed of in systems separate
from storm water and carried to a disposal plant where it is treated
into effluent, which may be discharged into a river, stream, or other
natural body of water.

3. Electric Power
4. Telephone
5. Gas
6. Storm Water System, pick up surface water and carry it to local
streams or lakes where it can be discharged safely.

C. Existing Building, building on site must be shown and their uses and
facilities studied. Information needed for inventory are:
7. Size, floor area and existing condition
8. Historical values

Landmark Status
1. A designated historical landmark is a property with
demonstrated/documented cultural or architectural significance.
2. A local landmark designation typically brings with it certain
restrictions and oversight for the property.
3. Some historical designations increase the value of a property because
the land is associated with a popular public figure or the land is in a
desirable neighborhood or well-kept historic homes.
Heritage
- valued objects and qualifies such as cultural traditions, unspoiled
countryside, and historic buildings that have been passed down from
previous generations.

4.2 BEHAVIORAL SETTING & USERS’ REQUIREMENTS

4.3 CULTURAL FACTORS

 4.3.1 Existing Land Use - is based on population.
Off-Site Nuisances:
1. Visual Nuisances, e.g. power lines, water towers, certain industrial
complexes, highways, billboards & junkyards.
2. Auditory Nuisances, e.g. heavy automobile, rail or air traffic or from
large number of people.
3. Olfactory Nuisances, e.g. dumps, or in chemical & other waste.

Safety Hazards Resulted from:

1. Lack of linkages in areas of heavy traffic.
2. Severe & sudden changes in land (steep cliff at the edge of the site)
3. Air pollution

4.3.2. Linkages – location of site & its relations to adjacent properties & to the
community. It involve the following:
1. Movement of people, vehicles and goods
2. Communications and amenities

Example of Linkages:
-Parkways
-Parks
-Pedestrian overpass and underpass
-roads & bridges

4.3.3 Traffic & Transit - relationship of traffic pa5erns to each other and to
the site.

Factors to Consider in Inventory:

1. Existing vehicular networks
2. Trips (origin & destinations, purposes, time of day & volume)

4.4 PERTINENT LAWS

4.4.1 Density, Zoning & Subdivision Regulations

DENSITY – Volume of users. It can be expressed as:

-No. of families or dwelling unit/hectare
-Floor area ratio or gross floor area covering the site.
Density may influence:
-Privacy
-Freedom movement
-Social contact among people
ZONING – is one of the many legal & administrative devices by which city plan
are implemented.

ZONING DISTRICT – (residential, commercial & industrial)

Calls out requirement such as front, rear and side yards setbacks, parking
requirements, building heights, service bay requirements, maximum lot
coverage, screening, open space and recreational requirements. E.g. P.D. 1096.

SUBDIVISION REGULATIONS – land use control measures for municipal and

country control over development of land. The regulations are mainly
concerned with the layout and standards such as street width, turning radii,
 road right-of-way, cul-de-sac length, curb, sidewalk requirements and
landscaping.

4.4.2 OTHER REGULATIONS: B.P. 220, B.P. 344, etc.

5.0 AESTHETIC & PHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS

5.1 SITE CONTEXT
5.1.1 NATURAL FEATURES
-Sites may be endowed with outstanding natural features of earth, rock, water,
or plant material. Landforms, rock outcrops, ledges, boulders, lakes, steams,
wetlands, or wooded areas have scenic value and may be incorporated, along
with architecture, in the site development.
5.1.2 SPATIAL PATTERNS
1. Views, may be pleasing or objectionable.
2. Visual Barriers
3. Vistas may be a natural or completely man-made view. It has a dominant
focal point or terminus that is strongly emphasized and framed and
balance by minor elements forming masses to enclose the vista and screen
out conflicting objects from its composition
5.2 IMAGE/SYMBOLS
IMAGE- is an identity based on shape, color, texture, arrangement and sensory quality
of space.

Natural Elements that may have emotional effect when properly used:
1. Earth - base plane, is a plastic element and can be molded to enhance a
design. E.g. interesting topography
2. Rock - it has symbolic and aesthetic qualifies, it is a prominent element in
design. It may be used as natural feature or a sculptural element.
3. Water – the most flexible of the natural elements, assumes the shape of
the container. It gives cooling effect in large still pools; it conveys a sense
of quietude and repose.
4. Plant Material – constantly undergo change. They have climatic,
environmental engineering, architectural and aesthetic uses.

5.3 SENSUOUS QUALITIES AND FORMS

SENORY QUALITY - The sense of place – its visual impression and appeal to one’s
senses of sound, smell and touch – adds a further dimension to the design of spaces.
Three Enclosing or Space-Forming Elements:
1. BASE PLANE - It is the surface of the earth and therefore must be properly
planned for uses and their linkages before further development can take
place.
2. OVERHEAD PLANE - The sky is the greatest overhead plane. Overhead
planes may be solid, translucent or perforated, but this is generally not as
important visually as the type of articulation be provided.
3. VERTICAL PLANE - It has the most important function in defining the uses
of spaces. It has also great visual impact and may act as points of
reference or landmarks. It can use as buffering elements for noise and
may control sunlight or wind.

6.0 MOVEMENT SYSTEM

Circulation systems are vital linkages that relate activities and uses of the land.
6.1 PEDESTRIAN
6.1.1 Physical Characteristics of the Pedestrian
1. Dimensional Criteria – human dimension and activity, spatial requirement
for psychological comfort.
 Average Walking Rates of Adult Pedestrian
Type mm/min h/min km/hr
Average adult 78 000 260 4.3
Elderly (75 yrs.) 65 500 215 4
Bunching 60 000 200 3.7
Stairways (going down) 45 600 152 2.8
Stairway (going up) 33 900 113 2
2. Movement Criteria – walking rate, acceptable walking distance, pedestrian density.

3. Visual Criteria - eye level and cone vision (important in placement and orientation of signage),
visual perception.

6.1.2 Spatial Standard

1. Pathway width and slope Criteria
Calculation of walkway width:

Pathway Width = V(M)

S
Where: V=volume, pedestrian/minute
M=space module, m²(h²) pedestrian
S=walking speed, m(h)/minute

Example calculation: Given the volume of pedestrians=200/minute, minimum

space module desired = 1.67 m²/pedestrian (18 h²), pedestrian walking speed
(normal) = 79.25 m/min (260 h/min)

Solution:

200 x 1.675 = 344 = 4.22 m

79.25 9.25

2. Stairways - widths (1 500mm for public spaces & 1 050mm for private
spaces), tread-riser ratios (115mm to 150mm for outdoor) , height between landings.
3. Ramps - slope criteria (1:12 or 8.33% for ramp & 1:8 or 12% for curb cuts),
distance between landings.
4. Seating Criteria
5. Handrailings
6. Pedestrian Signage

6.2 VEHICULAR
6.2.1 Categories and Classificafions of Circulation System:
1. Grid System - usually comprised of equally spaced streets running
perpendicular to each other. Generally used on flat or slightly rolling land.
2. Radial System - directs flow to a common center; where high levels of
activity exist, however, the center may become hard to manage. This system is
not as flexible as the grid.
3. Linear System - connects flow between two points and is illustrated by
railroad lines or canals. An adaptation for this system is the use of loops on
either side of the main artery to aid local flow.
4. Curvilinear System - takes advantage of topography by following the land
as closely as possible. It is closely related to traffic at the local level and many
have variety of street alignments readily adaptable to topography.

6.1.2 Road Layouts:

1. T- Junction (street intersections)
 2. Four-way intersection
3. Y-Junction
4. Angular intersection

7.0 Site Development

7.1 Component of Site Development Plan

(1 to 9 excerpts from ‘Designing with Plants’ by Richard Austin)
1. Scale, both wri5en and graphic
2. North arrow
3. Existing plant materials
4. Plants to be removed and relocated
5. Structures, overhangs, paving (both existing and proposed)
6. Topography where applicable
7. Details where needed (a separate sheet is usually required)
8. Small orientation map
9. Title block
10. Immediate access roads and off site uses

7.2 Steps to Guide the Initial Design Process

1. Develop general area takeoff and overall building footprint to measure total site
coverage of impermeable surfaces and determine run-off pollution potential.
2. Identify alternative site design concepts to minimize resource costs and disruption.
3. Identify topographic and hydrological impacts of proposed design and building use.
4. Review financial implications of site development, building, and projected
maintenance costs.
5. Develop matrix use and site compatibility index. Each site may be assessed to
reveal its development compatibility index with regard to a specific type of development.

7.3 Site Development must consider the following:

1. Infrastructure - transportation and utilities
2. Building and site requirements – building orientation, site improvements,
construction methods and materials.

8.0 Landscape Design

8.1 Elements of Design (Planting)

1. POINT
- marks the position in space, used to assert ownership or dominion over an
area, and to provide a focus in a given design.
2. LINE
- an extension of a point in one dimension. It can be regular, fuzzy, jagged,
curvy or discontinuous.
3. FORM
- this includes the shape and structure of a plant or plant mass. Shape evokes
a powerful effect on the way we perceived our surroundings as pa5erns. Shapes are
also very important to achieve design theme.
4. COLOR
- refers to the characteristic of a material which affects the way light is
reflected from it.
5. TEXTURE
- refers to the surface quality of any plant material which can be seen or felt.
It is the visual roughness and smoothness of a surface in addition to its epidermal or
tactile characteristics.
6. SIZE
- this concerns the dimensions of elements. Large, tall or deep forms are
impressive and have been used to exert power. Smaller forms may be valued forms
 may be valued for their low impact and also to create contrast.

8.1 Principles of Design (Planting)

1. UNITY
- It is the appearance of wholeness or completeness and continuity in a design
or landscape. It concerns the connection between the parts in a landscape design.
2. EMPHASIS AND FOCALIZATION
- This is a result of a break in visual order. This can be achieved through use of
similar elements in rhythmic pa5ern in order to highlight the main accent.
Focal points are places in the landscape where a5enfion is naturally drawn or
where the designer elects to direct it.
3. BALANCE
- a state where all parts of a design or landscape are in equilibrium and no
part needs to be moved, added or subtracted. It can either be:

a. Symmetry – is the arrangement of elements so that one part of a

composition is balanced by an identical or mirror image in another part.
b. Asymmetry - is the opposite state wherein balance is also achieved but
through the presence of different composition.
c. Proximal/Distal - refers to balancing the elements that are far against
those that are near, the distant view and those beside the viewer.
4. SCALE & PROPORTION
- Scale pertains to the size of elements in relation to the human body and to
the landscape. Scale varies with the position and distance of the observer.
- Proportion is the relationship of parts of a design or composition to the
whole, especially in size or degree.
5. RHYTHM
- The repetition of similar elements at the same or related intervals so that
they appear to be part of a whole composition and create an illusion of movement.
Rhythm increases interest and introduces dynamics into a design.
6. SIMPLICITY
- the state of having one or few elements, parts, or features in a design or
landscape. A design with too many rudiments involved may create chaos.
7. HIERARCHY
- this is a method of ordering sections of a composition so that some parts are
more important or dominant than others. Size, scale, position, color, etc. can be used
to determine hierarchy.
8. CONTRAST
- It is the visible difference between two elements or parts or of a design when
seen together. The greater the differences and the closer the position, the greater the
contrast. This can be expressed in color, shape, size and concept.

9.0 Concepts and Principles of Green Architecture as applied in site planning and landscape
design

9.1 Design Concepts

1. Formal
- calls for symmetrical, well balance elements and well manicured plants.
E.g. French and Italian garden elements.
2. Informal/Tropical or Natural
a. The Tropical landscape - characterized by colorful flowers and foliage, big
leaves like the heliconias and the cannes and the vines and other forest elements that
are the trademarks of a tropical forest.
b. Natural English Garden - characterized by some sort of planned
‘wilderness’. E.g. English garden
c. Balinese - characterized by the presence of Bali’s hardscape elements,
statues and symbols blended with the tropical floras.
d. Japanese Garden - brought by the desire to copy nature through symbols
such as use of dry garden to symbolize river with rocks and stones, shaped shrubs to
 symbolize natural rocks, etc.
e. Contemporary - the modern garden can be a mixture or an adaptation of
the classic gardens suited to the materials and taste of the users.

9.2 Elements of Different Design Concepts:

1. ITALIAN GARDEN STYLE
a. Giordino Segreto (Secrete Garden) - it is adjacent to the house and was part
of the garden where most flowers were grown.
b. Loggia - support vines, but its purpose is to protect not plant but people.
c. Pergola - an arbor formed of plants trained over trelliswork. It can be
freestanding covered walk or can be a5ached to the side of the building. Its primary
function is to support vines.
d. Balustrade - a series of short pillars or columns topped with a rail or
coping.
e. Column - In classical architecture, the slender shah commonly called a
column was only part of a whole. It generally supported a railing or the decorative part
of a building. Sometimes the shah took the form of a caryatid (a standing female
figure)
f. Sala escoverta - an enclosed courtyard or uncovered room that opened from
the house and was treated in a similar style.
g. Colonnade - a series of columns set at regular intervals and usually
supporting the base of a roof structure.
h. Gro5o (cave or cavern)- a man-made retreat from the sun’s heat. Gro5oes
are cool, damp places where classical sculptures might reside.

2. BRITISH GARDEN STYLE

a. Wild Garden - letting hardy perennials naturalize and to benefit
from ‘beautiful accidents’.
b. Ha-ha - a deep ditch (which in effect, a sunken fence) it keeps the cows
from the corn without interrupting the flow of the landscape.
c. Cottage Garden - a style of romantic planting that combines the practical
with the poetic and make a lush garden small, enclosed space. Fruits and vegetables
are intermingled with old-fashioned flowers.
d. Folly - a whimsical structure that lightens up the garden, a folly can be
anything from a red lacquer Chinese temple where the family takes tea to a garden
shed shaped like a ship to a re-creation of a Gothic ruin, brooding atop a craggy hill.
e. Border - a bed, longer that it is wide, where a variety of flowers and shrubs
are planted together for mass effect.
f. Landscape Park - rolling parkland, groves of trees, and a lake with a
classical temple or two.

3. FRENCH GARDEN STYLE

a. Allée - an avenue symmetrically bordered on either side by trees or hedges.
b. Parterre - literally ‘on the ground’. A level space in the garden laid out with
beds contained within a hedge.
c. Potager - from the French potage ‘soup’. It is a kitchen garden where herbs,
vegetables, and flowers are all grown together.
d. Espalier - a labor-intense technique by which a fruit tree or vine is trained
on a lattice, on wire, or against a wall or fence to create geometric shapes.
e. Jardin de curé - literally the ‘priest’ garden’. It is the antithesis of the
formal, geometric French garden.
f. Bosquet – ‘small compartments … formed of trees, shrubs, or tall large
growing plants.

4. JAPANESE GARDEN STYLE

a. Shakkei - the concept of ‘borrowed view’, in which elements of the
surrounding scenery – such as mountains in the distance – are framed by walls, trees,
or other elements and integrated into the garden’s design to direct the view and expand
the feeling of available space.
 b. Kare-sansui – a ‘dry landscape’ garden.
c. Karedaki - a ‘dry waterfall’ created by arranging stones, sometimes
with striations or indentations that resemble water pa5erns.
d. Tsuboniwa - a small garden, originally created in an area of one tsubo
(approximately 36 sq.m.), usually found in a courtyard and meant to be viewed from
indoors.
e. Roji - technically a ‘dewy path’ that leads through an enclosed area to a
house where the formal tea ceremony is held.
f. Kaiyushiki Teien - a stroll garden, developed during the Edo Period
(1615-1867), where a path, often following the shore of a body of water, is laid out to
reveal the garden slowly in a series of perfectly controlled vigne5es.
g. Tsukubai - an arrangement of stones in a tea garden, including a water
basin---known as a chozubachi---used from the ritual cleansing of hands and mouth
before the tea ceremony, and a stone to hold a toro, or lantern.

5. TROPICAL GARDEN STYLE

a. Epiphyte - a plant that grows fixed to the bark or branches of a tree but,
does not steal nourishment from its host.
b. Tropics - includes the entire region lying between the tropic of Cancer and
the tropic of Capricorn --- temperate areas and the arid deserts as well as mountainous
regions and rain forests.
c. Canteiros - of Roman origin, these plant beds or stone boxes that seem to
float in the middle of pools were used in Portugal.
d. Understory - composed of plants that grow under trees, benefiting from the
shade provided by the leafy canopy overhead.
e. Nurse plants - Plants that help other plants to grow --- whether by providing
the proper environment for germination or a tree trunk to climb to reach the light.
f. Xerophyte - a plant that has adapted to an arid climate by reducing the
water loss.

10.0 Cost Factors

REFERENCES:

Austin, Richard L. Designing with Plants.Ne York: Van Nostrand Reinhold C,. 1982

Collins English Dictionary, 10th Edition, 2009 Copyright William Collins & Sons Co. Ltd. 1979.
Dines, Nicholas T. and Brown, Kyle Landscape Architect’s Portable Handbook. 2001

Harris, Charles W. & Dine, Nicholas T. Time-Saver Standard for Landscape Architecture, 2nd
Edition. McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New York, 1998.

Ingles, Jack E. Landscaping Principles and Practices. 5th ed. Delmar Publisher, 1997.

Lynch, Kevin. Site Planning. Latest Edition.

Madulid, Domingo A. A Pictorial Cyclopedia of Philippine Ornamental Plants

Rubeustein, Harvey M. A Guide to Site Planning and Landscape Construction, 4th Edition.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1996.

Simonds, John Ormbee. Landscape Architecture. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc, New York,
2006.

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