S.

Bardhan Landscape Architecture [Theory] DoA-JU

LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE [THEORY]
Outline texts from A/V presentations
[Students are advised to supplement the following texts with class notes/ discussions and landscape
text book: Michael Laurie’s ‘Introduction to Landscape Architecture’]

PART-I: LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE…. An Overview

LAND - LANDSCAPE - LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

Land – Directly usable portions of earth’s surface

Landscape – When land is described in terms of
o Natural characteristics i.e. physiographic and environmental
o Acquired characteristics i.e. due to human impact

Landscape Architecture: Planning & Design of land and water on the basis of its natural
& acquired characteristics

DEFINITIONS: The definition of landscape architecture evolved steadily as expressed below:

1. According to Hubbard and Kimball: ~ a fine art to create and preserve beauty to promote
comfort, convenience and health of urban Population.

Hubbard and Kimball refer to landscape architecture as primarily a fine art, whose most important
function is to create and preserve beauty in the surroundings of human habitations and in the
broader, natural scenery of the country; but it is also concerned with promoting the comfort,
convenience and health of urban population, who have scanty access to rural scenery and urgently
need to have their hurrying workaday lives refreshed and calmed by the beautiful and reposeful
sights and sounds, ehich Nature, aided by the landscape art, can abundantly provide.

2. According to Garrett Eckbo: ~ Land designed as space for human living i.e. an extension
of architecture by other means.

Garrett Eckbo defines landscape architecture as covering that portion of the landscape which is
developed or shaped by man, beyond buildings, roads or utilities and up to wild Nature, designed
primarily as space for human living (not including agriculture, forestry). It is the establishment of
relation between building, surfacing and other outdoor constructions, earth, rock forms, bodies of
water, plants and open spaces and the general form and character of the landscape; but with
primary emphasis on the human content, the relationship between people and landscape, between
human beings and three-dimensional outdoor space, quantitatively and qualitatively.
This definition is related to the concept expressed by others that landscape architecture is an
extension of architecture by other means. Only the differences between architecture and landscape
architecture occur in the means, techniques and materials and of course, in the fourth dimension.

3. According to Brian Hackett: ~ a more serious and wider domain was assigned – he
identified and associated ECOLOGICAL & ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS to Landscape
Architecture.
Brian Hackett identified and associated the constraints inherent in the ecological cycles and
environmental processes of the landscape which limit the opportunities of individualistic approach
to design, that is more possible in architecture/engineering and industry.
According to him, “ALL WE CAN DO AND SHOULD DO IS TO MODIFY AND ADAPT THE
LANDSCAPE TO FIT THE NEW PROGRAM”. Thus, he points out to another essential difference
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between landscape architecture and other professions i.e. the MEDIUM in which we work – the
landscape- capable of change and growth, which has existed for millions of years and will
continue to exist.
It involves systematic investigation of existing social, ecological, geological conditions and
processes in the landscape, the careful design of interventions that will interact with these
conditions and processes to produce the desired outcome

Frederick Law Olmstead, the acclaimed designer of Central Park, New York and considered to be
the father of Landscape Architecture coined this term in the year 1858.

COMPONENTS OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE PRACTICE

1. Landscape planning & assessment:

Systematic evaluation of large areas of land in terms of suitability for any likely future use and
demarcate & assign land use according to the prediction of needs of the society

This has a strong ecological and natural science base

2. Site planning:
Creative synthesis of site analysis and requirements for site use; process involves qualitative and
functional arrangement of land set aside during the planning process

3. Detailed landscape design:

Process by which specific quality is given to spaces & areas of site; Involves selection of
components (paving, path, lawn etc.), materials and plants and their combination as solutions to
limited & well defined problems.

Thus, study of landscape architecture includes careful handling of open spaces of a wide range of
scales- from small yards (gardens) to sites (campus planning/ institutional/ commercial/industrial
etc.) to urban scale (parks and playgrounds, open space systems, urban landscape) to regional
scales (landscape planning/ townships) on one hand while addressing specific issues of
environment like wasteland management, eco-restorations (for example, that of water-systems),
storm water management, slope stabilization etc. and culture like historic landscape conservation.

LANDSCAPE & GARDEN

The concept of garden and landscape are closely linked but a fine difference is still present
between them. A garden involves simply the laying out of plants and water bodies and other
manmade landscape features. Landscape on the other hand is a long-drawn process:
Planning and assessment involving careful considerations of site and sustainability, site analysis
for knowledge and information about soil, geological and hydrological conditions and finally
designing concerning demarcation of spaces based on their usages and scales- site level (campus),
urban level (public parks) or regional level (say townships). It also involves slope stabilization,
eco-restoration, storm water management, wasteland management and historic landscapes. Careful
selection of plants, presence of water or lack of it, landform analysis etc. forms integral parts of the
process.
Plants:
• Initial assessment of site
• Site conditions
• Identify the requirements
• List of plant categories that fit the above

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• List of plants
Water:
• How and where water to be used
• Size and shape of water-body
• Purpose of water-body
• Static or dynamic expressions and how
• Positioning reflecting pools depending on what object to reflect
Landform:
• How the land is used
• Demarcation of areas based on functions
• Proper slope for drainage
• Control and monitoring of views
• Aesthetic character of site
• Providing a pleasing ground plane
• Cutting and filling roads to accommodate roads, building and parking lots

• Landscape is synonymous to topography of a region, thus it is the 3-D relief of any land,
whereas garden is any piece of land that has been treated, sometimes ornamental, according to
human use.
• A landscape may be untouched by humans or could be treated or engineered by man according
to his needs, whereas no garden is formed naturally, it is a creation of man.
• Every garden is created on a three dimensional earth’s relief i.e. landscape. This can be done
by altering the topography of landscape.
• Thus it may be said that all gardens are landscapes but all landscapes are not gardens.

Elements of Landscape Architecture

Primarily, the elements of landscape architecture are of two types: Natural & Man-made

Natural: Vegetation, Water, Landform

Man-made: Steps/Walls /Fences/Screens, Landscape Shelters, Outdoor/Street Furniture,
Landscape Features, Pathways & Paved areas

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PART-II: VEGETATION

Henry F. Arnold in his book ‘Trees in Urban Design’ pointed out “Vegetation is the most
exquisite but sparingly used raw material of Urban Design!”

VEGETATION TYPES: Classification on the basis of form and structure -

• Ground Covers- [pictures as shown in class]

These are low growing prostrate, surface covering plants with the following advantages:
o Controls erosion
o Absorbs heat, moisture and dust
o e.g. Alternanthera spp., wedelia trilobata, Ipomea goldeana, Juniperus prostrata ,
Alternanthera spp.

• Shrubs – [pictures as shown in class]

These are woody or semi-woody perennial multi-stemmed low branching plants 3’- 10’ in height
with the following advantages:
o Low growing thorny shrubs act as a physical barrier
o taller shrubs act as visual barrier as well as define space

Most shrubs are hardy and grow in all types of soil with little attention. They are usually grown for
their showy flowers or beautiful foliage.
o e.g. flowering shrubs like Muraya exotica (Kamini), Ixora singaporensis (Rangan),
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (China rose), Tabernaemontana coronaria variegata (Tagar); and
o Foliage shrubs like Ficus spp., Acalypha spp., Crotons etc.

Hedges are shrubs that have been trained or clipped to form a solid barrier to stop physical access
or define a boundary. Their primary emphasis is forming an unbroken line along breadth, length
and height. The optimum height of shrubs and hedges depends on use. Lower heights are best
suited for directing pedestrian traffic while taller forms give a sense of enclosure for privacy.

• Trees – [pictures as shown in class]

These are single stemmed perennial plants growing above 10’. Depending on the leaf shedding
habit of trees, these can be classified as evergreen or deciduous. Plants that lose all their leaves in
the autumn and gain a new set in the spring are called deciduous. Plants that shed a few leaves
throughout the year but maintain most of their leaves at all times during a year, are called
evergreen.
Evergreen trees –
o Gives shade throughout the year
o Less and controlled leaf litter
o Ideal for wind break or shelter planting
o Example: Plumeria alba (Gulancha/ Pagoda tree), Mangifera indica (Mango), Saraca indica
(Sita Ashok)

Deciduous trees -
o Greater visual variety
o Partial permeability
o Ideal for places where under-planting is required
o Example: Plumeria acutifolia (Kath champa), Delonix regia (Gulmohur), Peltophorum
ferruginium (Radha chura) etc.

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PHYSIOGNOMY or Visual Plant Characteristics:

Size (canopy spread, canopy height)

Form (columnar/pyramidal/globular etc. as explained below)

Colour (through different parts of the plant including foliage, flower, bark etc.)

Texture (foliage texture and density)

Size & Texture [pictures as shown in class]

The following parameters define the size and texture of a plant
• Crown spread or Foliage spread – horizontal measure of the crown size
• Crown height – Clear headroom below the tree
• Foliage density – leaf biomass per unit volume of crown; e.g. dense (Bakul or
Moulsari/Mango) / sparse (Gulmohar)
• Plant/Foliage texture – large leave plants are coarse textured while small leaves are fine
textured; coarse foliage plants can be appreciated from quite distance while fine textured
plants need close proximity for viewing and appreciation e.g. coarse (Kadam, Jarul)/ fine
(Gulmohar)
The texture of the foliage depends on many factors like the size of the leaves and how they
are arranged on their stems, the shape of the leaves, the edges of the leaves, their profusion
and the texture of leaf blade. Additionally, since texture dictates the light reflectivity from
the surface, texture of the leaf blade also determines whether the plant will have a shiny
and shimmering appearance or matt and dull look; e.g. shiny (Peepal)/ matt (Kadam,
Jarul). Rough texture foliage plants are suitable for arresting air-borne dust and dirt
particles and hence, can be effectively used on the road-sides, provided their other
attributes are also appropriate.
• Trunk girth – the size of the tree trunk is a distinct visual characteristic that may also give
the tree a certain peculiarity and uniqueness e.g. Baobab (Adansonia digitata) and Elephant
Foot tree (Cavanillesia platanifolia). It is also a measure of the age of the plant.

Colour

Colour is the singlemost significant visual characteristic that imparts primary identity to any plant.
Colour attribute of a plant can generate out of any of its components like foliage, flower and bark.
Leaves are not just green, but of different and numerous shades of green. Many species of plants
have different varieties that closely resemble each other except for sertain characteristics such as
foliage or flower colour. Plant hybridizers often introduce varieties with variegated foliage i.e.
multicoloured leaves having touches of red, white or yellow. Flower colour, their distribution in
the plant crown (solitray or in cluster) as well as their strutcure (drooping or erect) help to
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distinguish between plants. A yellow flowering plant may have solitary yellow flowers like Kolke
(Thevetia nerifolia) or erect cluster like Tabebuia argentea/ Cassia siamea or drooping cluster like
Amaltas (Cassia fistula).

Forms

In Nature, not all plant forms fit neatly into the categories mentioned below. Some are non-descript
while others cross the lines of various forms. Nevertheless, form is an important visual
characteristic, especaily when the plant is used by itself. When in groups, the collective form of the
entire group becomes significant.

DESIGN SIGNIFICANCE OF VARIOUS TREE FORMS: [pictures as shown in class]

i. Fastigiate & Columnar-

o These plant forms emphasize the vertical by leading the eye skyward
o They give a sense of verticality and height
o They can form accents or exclamation points when combined with rounded or spreading
types.
o E.g. Fastigiate – Polyalthia longifolia var. pendula (Ashok)
o E.g. Columnar- Casuarina equisetifolia (Jhau)
ii. Cone Shaped/ Pyramidal-
o Pyramidal forms are very sharp and distinctly noticeable
o They may be used as visual accents
o These are harmonius with pyramidal built forms/peaked mountain landforms
o They may be used in formal designs where stiff, geometric shapes are appropriate.
o E.g. Polyalthia longifolia (Ashok/Deodar)
iii. Globular-
o Rounded plants are non-directional and neutral in their ability to lead the eye
o These can be used to give a design unity by their repetition throughout the composition
o E.g. Mimusops elengi (Bakul)
iv. Horizontally spreading-
o Spreading tree forms carry the eye along in horizontal plane
o Thus can be used in a composition to connect other forms visually (like architectural
forms)
o They tend to be in harmony with level landform
o E.g. Samanea Saman (Rain Tree or Khirish)
v. Weeping-
o In Nature, weeping plant forms are often found in and associated with low points on
ground- like the weeping Willow along edges of water-bodies.
o In a design, they can lead the eye towards the ground, a functuion that may be employed
after the eye has been carried upward with ascending forms.
o These are effective when used at the water edge, as they symbolize the fluid quality of the
water itself.
o E.g. Salyx babylonica (Weeping Willow)
vi. Vase Shaped-
o These maintain a uniform skyline are restful in nature.
o E.g. Erythrina indica (Mandar)
vii. Open headed irregular-
o best used as a specimen located at a prominent point
o e.g. Bombax malabaricum (Simul)

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• Vines (Creepers & Climbers) – [pictures as shown in class]
These are plants needing support to grow, with the following advantages –
o Combined with overhead structures, vines can provide delightful shaded areas
o Building walls can be covered for insulation and glare reduction

• Herbaceous Plants/ Bulbs/ Annuals [pictures as shown in class]

~ Grown usually for their flowers, although some are having very attractive foliage.
However, these are labour intensive and demand high maintenance

• Palms & Cycads [pictures as shown in class]

Palms normally have upright and straight stem and large leaves at the terminal portion of the trunk
with an exception of few which are naturally branched. According to the foliage type, they may be
divided into two main groups: Feather or pinnate leaved (Coconut) and Fan or flabelliform leaved
(China Palm or Taal). According to the structure of stems, palms may also be categorized as
cluster palm (Areca lutescens) and erect palm (Areca catechu or Betel Nut).
Several species are sturdy and grow well in shade or semi-shade. There are about 2779 species of
palm.
e.g. Roystanea regia (Royal Palm or Bottle Palm), Cocos nucifera (Coconut), Phoenix canariensis
(Date Palm), Borassus flabellifar (Taal), Caryota urens (Fish Tail Palm), Areca catechu (Betel Nut
or Supari)
Cycads - Cycas circinalis, Cycas revoluta, Zamia furfuracea

•Cactii & Succulents – [pictures as shown in class]

Special group of plants suitable for dry drought-prone areas and xeriscapes.
Succulence is a morphological concept derived from the Latin ‘succus’ or ‘sap’. Depending on
thelocation of water storage tissues, they are termed as leaf succulent, stem succulent, root
succulent etc. Nearly fifty plant families possess members of succulent plants, while cactaceae has
all its members in this group. Therefore all cacti are succulents, but all succulents are not cacti.
Succulents belonging to Cctaceae are called cactus, rest are called ‘other succulents’.

Some Specimen plants cutting across vegetation types:- Furcraea watsoniana, Zamia furfuracea,
Cycas revoluta, Cycas circinalis, Brya ebenus, Beaucarnia recurvata, Phoenix roebellenii, Yucca
spp. Etc.

VEGETATION: ROLE [as discussed in details in class]

Utilitarian,

Ecological & Environmental,

Design: Functional & Aesthetic

VEGETATION: ROLE
Utilitarian:
•Sustains the earth
•Supply the essential Oxygen for living
•Support wildlife like birds etc.
•Most parts of a vegetation is consumed by the animal kingdom
•Medicinal use
•Constructional Use

Ecological & Environmental:

•‘Producer’ in the eco-system
•Combat air and water pollution - certain plants absorb toxic elements like lead and arsenic to
cleanse the atmospheric and aquatic pollution

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•Air purification by Dust absorption- Plants with large and coarse texture foliage arrest air borne
dust particles on the leaf surface
•Noise barrier - extent depend upon the density of foliage
•Control soil erosion – the root system of plants hold the soil particles and prevent dislodging of
these
•Infrastructure stabilization (lake/ river/ road/ river embankments)
• Wind Break/ Shelter belt – provide shade (macro/micro)
• Maintains balance in water, Carbon, O2 and N2 cycles
• Trees act as environmental moderators through absorption, interception and reflection of solar
radiation. They are natural air-conditioners.
• Hedge rows and shrubs can help to block cold winter winds and suitably channelize the summer
breeze.
• In addition grass slopes and berms can prevent extra heat load on the building surface if
strategically placed and designed.

Design: Functional:
•Organise and define spaces
•Enclose spaces to varying degree of permeability
•Act as visual screen
•Act as physical barrier
• Environmental screen, also meant to add life to an otherwise dull wall
•Demarcate different functional zones
•Guide movements
•Unify an entire scheme, as in urban roads
•Articulate spaces by POINT (focus), LINE (axis & vistas) & MASSES (group planting and
groves)

Design: Aesthetics:
•Color for visual delight
•Fragrance
•Frame views
•Direct views by successive opening and blocking
•Emphasize geometry
•Act as accents
•Unify an entire scheme, as in urban roads
•Relate to architecture by repeating the rhythm and form of buildings.

Planting Rationale:

Selection of a particular species would require full knowledge of the characteristics of the plant
and careful analysis & assessment of the site requirements.
A research and design tool to aid in logical and scientific selection of tree species for a particular
zone/area/ site/ spot.
The process involves (at City & neighbourhood scale) :

Identification of particular situations

Study of the site conditions

List the effects/goals that are required to be achieved

Plant Qualities that can fulfill the objectives/ requirements

List of Plants

[NOTE: Refer separate notes on native Indian trees in continuation of ‘Vegetation’]

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PART-III: WATER

Urban water-bodies and wetlands, either natural or man-made had always been the lifeline of
Indian cities since ancient times as they were important water resources for most human activities
– be it drinking, agriculture or industry. Hence they were preserved by the people as life sustained
around these water bodies and wetlands. Tanks were constructed for storing rain-water or run off
in the catchment areas of cities without any river or lake in the vicinity. These served as water
resources for the rest of the year. In South India, a temple complex always had a tank in the centre
and the city grew around the temple complex. These tanks had wells which were connected to the
aquifers thus keeping the tank always recharged. The Cholas were renowned for construction of
such tanks all over the state of Tamil Nadu. There is no room for any doubt that they are an
indispensable ecosystem both from the environmental context as well as from the socio-economic
aspect. Maintenance of hydrological balance is highly dependent on these ecosystems as they act
as storage for water supply and in regulation of the water table by recharging the surface and
underground water supply. They also help in discharging excess ground water. They act as ‘flood-
cushions’ by storing flood waters thereby reducing the force of flooding. They play a very
important role in water purification by acting as sediment settling areas for the organic (sewage)
and toxic (chemical and industrial) sediments. Nutrient retention by storing nitrogen and
phosphorus in vegetation or in the sub-soil is an important function which also helps to reduce
eutrophication of downstream lakes and other wetlands. They play a major role in maintaining
climatic stability both at the micro and macro levels. Evaporation as well as transpiration from
vegetation around them help in regulating local humidity and rainfall levels. At the macro-climatic
level peatlands perform carbon sequestration functions. They act as ‘carbon sinks’, absorb CO2
from the atmosphere and transfer carbon into the stored organic material. Aquatic, avifauna and
terrestrial sustain around these water bodies. Many species of fish, reptiles, amphibians,
invertebrates, mammals and plants live and grow here thus constituting a rich biological diversity.
Water bodies and wetlands are the sources of many genetic material used in research and product
development. They also act as sources of livelihood. Civilisations have always flourished around
wetlands since ancient times and hence a rich cultural heritage has always been associated with
these wetlands. It is widely believed that historic cities like Fatehpur Sikri and Nagaur were
abandoned largely due to lack of water availability (Ghosh, 2010).

Water- primarily ‘freshwater’ which is fit for human application is essential for sustaining life.
Distribution of Earth’s water shows that only 3% of the world’s water is fresh, 99% of which is
locked in frozen state in glaciers and pack ice or buried in aquifers. The remainder (less than 1%)
is found in lakes, ponds, rivers and streams. Other than just a water-supply source, any lake /water-
body helps in:

• Source of food
• Conservation of bio-diversity
• Maintenance of soil moisture
• Maintenance of water-table in the surroundings
• Micro-climatic effects (temp./wind flow)
• Receive run-offs during monsoon
• Contribute to moderation of floods

WATER: General Uses

1. Utilitarian: Consumption, Irrigation, Transportation, Climate Control
2. Religious: Water is symbolic of purity and spiritual cleanliness. Thus it is indispensable in
the performance of rites in many faiths. Water in religious buildings are mainly used for
ablution.
3. Recreational
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a. Passive: Touch /Feel, Sound, Sight
b. Active: Fishing/ Splashing/ Swimming/Wading/ Rowing/ Sailing/ Boating
4. Visual
5. Functional

From landscape design point of view, the last four play very significant role. This gets elaborated
through the following text.

UTILITARIAN:

The essential role that water plays is sustaining life. From an historical perspective, many earky
cities were originally settled at the edge of a river/stream/lake/sea or sprig. Ancient civilizations
were also river based, Most cities in the world have a historical link to water.

The characteristics/properties of water that influence its use in landscape are:

i. Environmental benefit and climate control:

Water may be used to modify ground (surface) and air temperatures. It is well known that a large
body of water at the regional scale can modify air-temperatures in the surrounding land areas,
causing the local temperature of land next to large water-bodies to be different from that o f the
general region.
Water at a smaller site scale can fulfill similar functions. Evaporation of moisture from a surface
will lower the temperature of that surface and in turn, the air temperature in its vicinity. The
cooling effect of water can be enhanced if wind is directed over and through an area of water into a
usable space.
Spanish and Moorish gardens such as the one at Alhambra used this principle as a method of air
conditioning both their indoor and outdoor spaces.
Cooling quality of water can be used by jetting the water into the air to reduce temperature and
increase humidity. This has been effectively and very efficiently used in the Persian and Mughal
gardens.

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ii. Plasticity:

Water being plastic, takes the shape of the container – thus the same volume of water can have an
infinite number of different qualities, depending on the size, shape, colour, texture, Location etc. of
the container. In a sense, a person designs with water by designing the container.

iii. Sound:

Water has the ability to emit sound when it is in motion or when it abruptly strikes a fixed object
or surface. Some common sounds created by water are: trickle, gurgle, roar, gush, splash and
babble.
Emotional association: water sound may calm and soothe on one hand and excite on the other.
Uses: Sound of falling or running water can mask unwanted sounds. In urban environment, water
may be used in the form of falling or moving water and the sound generated can mask the noises of
cars, traffic etc. to create a more peaceful atmosphere.
The sound, together with the sight of falling water creates a vibrant and festive mood and
therefore, is highly desirable in public places of recreation and entertainment.
Example: Fountain Plaza, Portland, Oregon, USA
Falling cascades add ‘sound’ to the urban space. It appreciably alters the quality, the
feeling of an open space. But all sounds- voices, footsteps, passing vehicles may echo and
reverberate in the square/ space and thereby, add to the ‘sense of place’.

iv. Recreational use:

The activities involved with water as mentioned above make direct use of water in the form of
boating, fishing, swimming etc. but require large areas of water.

v. Reflection:

In a quiet static state, water can function a s a mirror, repeating an image of its surroundings on the
base plane. Under absolute static condition, when the water surface is glass smooth, the reflected
image may be so precise that distinguishing the two becomes difficult.
Reflective quality of water doubles the dimensions of the object reflected and hence, can
substantially change the scale and perception of a space. It can also have a dramatic effect when
properly illuminated at night. The reflection to be seen from any point can be calculated
geometrically e.g. French Gardens.
However, the water surface must be very still and the bottom very dark or deep for effective
reflection. This is reverse in case of swimming pools where the bottom needs to be seen.
Since water reflects the sky, a small pond in a dark enclosure or enclosed courtyard acts like a
mirror in a dark room and serves to add light.
When a pool of quiet still water is used as a plane of reflection for the sky and/ or nearby elements
like buildings, sculptures, trees etc., the reflected image provides the viewer with a new point of
perspective. On a bright sunny day, a reflective pool appears brighter and shiny in contrast to dark
areas of lawn or paving. This shimmering quality creates a light weightless quality in contrast to
the heavy solidity of other areas of ground plane. To maximize reflection, the following should be
considered:
i. Size and location of the pool with respect to viewer’s position and the object to be
reflected.
ii. Depth of the pool and the tone of its containing surfaces – deeper the pool, better is the
perception of the reflection and darker the container, again better is the perception of
reflection.

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iii. Level of water surface in the pool and profile of the edge – higher the level, maximum is
the exposure of water to the surroundings, thus aiding more reflection and less amount of
shadows cast by the pool sides. A splayed edge is better than a straight edge as the former
eliminates formation of the shadow.
iv. Quality of water – presence of algae or debris would interfere with the reflection
v. Simpler the form of the container, better the chances of visual concentration on reflection.

Special area of interest:

Pool bottom can have interesting treatment colour, patterns and texture etc.
Stripes painted on sides and bottom can add another dimension of visual quality: the effect of
water movement and light filtering down through the water creates weird and twisted
kaleidoscopic images of the original pattern.

vi. Physical barrier/ defense:

Water can be used to control circulation by acting as a physical barrier e.g. moats
It can also serve as a partial visual barrier, for example, water made to trickle or flow down a glass
surface can effectively screen off unwanted views, while still allowing light into the interior.
It can act as a focal point, especially in the cities- in the form of fountains etc.

vii. Motion:

Another important attribute of water is its fluidity and ability to attain a wide range of expressions.

Different Forms of Expression of Water:

• Static water – still water forms - Lake- Pond- Pool – moat - gently flowing river
• Dynamic water – moving water forms - -Fountain -Cascade –Sheet-fall

STATIC WATER:

It expresses a balance and equilibrium with the force of gravity. This is the neutral form of water.
Emotional association - peaceful, relaxing & soothing;
Historical Association -
•French Renaissance Gardens of 17th Century
•English landscape Gardens of 18th Century.
While in the former, water was contained in different geometrical shapes of varying sizes, in the
latter it was allowed to occur in free flowing natural form. Although their containing form varied,
the static water in both these styles was used as a neutral, reflective element encouraging
contemplation.
However, even the surface of still water is seldom still and its effects are fascinatingly various – a
brilliant sparkle when shattered by light wind, soft spreading rings from a single disturbance like a
stone or a fish, ripple patterns from moving objects etc. – the water-form is an ever-moving dapple
of light.

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Still water can also provide a neutral background and foreground to other elements and focal
points in the outdoor environment – an unobtrusive setting for a piece of sculpture, building, tree
etc., thereby, accentuating its sight as well as providing a different visual experience of the element
through reflection.

DYNAMIC WATER:
In an attempt to reach a point of stability with gravity, this form of water moves faster with greater
imbalance. Inspired from natural springs and cascades, Man has ‘engineered’ water to re-create
these natural forms in urban settings.
Emotional association – It is exciting, dramatic, energetic, stimulating – because of its sound and
its interaction with colour and light. It simmers and shines and create patterns under the influence
of wind and light.

Historical Association -

• French Renaissance Gardens of 17th Century - Versailles,

Water works of Versailles: The Latona Basin, Apollo Fountain, Water theatre, water colonnade
• 16th C. Italian Renaissance Gardens – Villa d Este, Tivoli
Dynamic water acts as a point of interest. A high jet of water can form a strong focal point, a
means of reference and orientation – especially in the night sky when trees and other urban forms
are dormant.
A dynamic water-form at road crossing articulates movement without obscuring moving vehicles
or urban forms.

viii. Visual:

Water is a magnet which holds our attention and hence, can be developed as a self-centred entity
indifferent to what lies beyond. Even in a setting of depressingly ugly scenery, one can make a
complete oasis just by screening the outward views, which then cease to exist for anybody in the
water landscape.
• Attracts and holds attention:
• Accentuates depth: Depth can be accentuated by a reflecting pool. At night when the built
forms are engulfed in darkness, an illuminated fountain enlivens the plaza.
• Separates two different activity areas: Even a thin sheet of water can act as a good
separator of activities while softening the rigidity of a highly built environment, that a
fence, hedge, bollard could not have achieved.

Points to remember while designing with water [pictures as shown in class]:

• Static or still water can accumulate a lot of dirt and leaf litter, thus defeating is purpose of
reflection.

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• It may also act as breeding place of mosquitoes, if not attended regularly.
• Water-bodies (still or moving) when placed below a tree is susceptible to damage due to
falling leaves which may block and choke the plumbing lines meant for water recirculation.
Therefore, it is advisable to have trees with large leaves and evergreen type by the water-
side. Plants of deciduous nature should preferably not be planted near water-bodies. Also
all varieties of Palm are excellent choice as water-edge plantation.
• Dynamic water systems involve two scarce resources: water & energy. Hence while
designing such features, its maintenance and running costs should be carefully considered.
• Dynamic water-systems shall preferably be combined with some sculptural feature,
especially for the non-operational period, so that it continues to act as a focal point even
when not in operation.
• Water bodies placed in sunny situations can cause glare effects into nearby rooms by
reflection of direct sunlight.
• It should also be remembered that any water surface has the disadvantage of ‘less direct
use’ in most situations, unless specifically meant for such activities as in water parks or
amusement parks.
• Special care and attention to be given for water-designs in public places.

Land-water interface:

Treatment of water edge gives character to a place. It is the connection of water to land and is
ecologically a very fragile area.
Its form and materials depend on the use of the water edge i.e. nature of our participation with
water.

Issues related to treatment of land-water interface:

• Safety and security of children or similar vulnerable sections of the society (design with
guard walls/berms/ vegetated borders)
• Whether physical accessibility (for the purpose of recreation or service) is required (design
with ghats/ steps etc.)
• Whether soil erosion takes place
• Whether visual connectivity is important

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PART-IV: LANDFORM

Landscape Architects utilize a variety of physical design elements to meet their objectives in
creating and managing outdoor spaces for human use and enjoyment. Landform is one such
significant and powerful element.

Definition: Landform is synonymous with ‘topography’ and refers to the three- dimensional relief
of the earth’s surface. It may consist of leveled, convex, concave, ridge or valley forms or a
combination of two or more.

Landform can be classified under the following [pictures as shown in class]:

•Macro-landform- Landform at regional scale are valleys, Mountains, rolling hills and plains.
•Micro-landform- Those at site-scale are mounds, berms, slopes, Level areas or elevation changes
via steps and ramps.
•Mini-landform ~ Those at ‘spot’-scale or mini-landforms constitute subtle undulations Or ripples
of a sand-dune or the textural variation of stones and rocks in a walk.

In all the above, landform is the surficial ground element of the exterior environment.

SIGNIFICANCE OF LANDFORM [pictures as shown in class]

Landform of a particular area drives and influences the following land attributes:
• Land use (at macro scale)
• Organization of functions in a particular site ( at site level)
• Drainage
• Micro-climate
• Aesthetic character of the site
• Definition and perception of space
• Control and monitoring of views
Since all other design elements like plants, water, paving and buildings must at some point relate
to the ground plane, landform is one common component in the exterior environment and the
foremost consideration In the evolution of design.

Landform of a site suggests and dictates the overall organization and orientation that various uses,
spaces and other elements should take to be compatible with the inherent composition of the site.
This is evident through historical examples and can be explained with two different topographical
conditions of France and Italy and how the famous gardens of these two countries shaped up:
Versailles-
In the context of the flat topography of France, landform at Versailles functions as a unifying
Factor, visually and functionally, connecting other components in the landscape e.g. Vista
formation and large expanses of water body in the form of the canal (static water)
Villa d Este, Tivoli, Italy
Ridges and high Points tend to segment the land into separate spaces and use areas in the form of
terraces and cascading water features (dynamic water).

GRADING - Any change or alterations in the grounds surface is referred to as Grading.

Grading or moulding the natural landform is done for the following reasons [pictures as shown in
class]:
•To establish proper drainage
•To accommodate such elements as building, roads, parking areas & the like
•To create an aesthetically pleasing ground plane
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•To delineate and enclose spaces to meet various needs
•To monitor views .e. either block or allow visibility

Grading requires both cut and fill. FILL: When soil is added to a portion of site through grading
CUT: When soil is excavated away from a portion of site.
The line beyond which no intervention in the landform takes place is called the no-cut-no-fill line.
Ideally, for any given project, cut volume should be equal to fill volume.

Grading is a necessary activity in special landscape areas like Golf-courses.

Expression of Landform

1. Contour Lines: These are most commonly used graphic expression of landform. It is defined as
a line on a plan-drawing that connects all the points with an equal Vertical distance above or below
a horizontal Reference plane, sometimes referred to as a datum or benchmark.
Contour Interval: ~is the vertical distance between any two contour Lines on a given plan and is a
constant number often noted in the legend. e.g. a 2’-0” contour interval means there is a 2’
elevation change Between each contour line in the plan. Contour interval for a given plan remains
constant.
Properties of Contours:
•An existing contour line is drawn free-hand and is shown as a Dashed line --------
•A proposed contour line is shown as a solid line.
•Contour lines always close on themselves (even if it is miles away From a particular site). They
never end abruptly.
•Contour lines never split.
However, the generally accepted custom of drawing eliminates the Use of single contour lines to
show one-dimensional edges like the top peak of a ridge. Instead, such edges are normally
indicated as a Series of spot grades: + + + +
•Contour lines never cross one another, (except to represent a natural bridge or overhang). Sine
soil by itself cannot be made to conform to Such configurations, only in case of walls or
overhangs, contour lines may cross or fall one on top of the other.

2. Ratio-Method: Ratio between the vertical and horizontal components of the slope e.g. 1:3/1:6
etc.
3. Percentage slope Method
1:6 (app. 16 %) Vehicular ramp
1:12 (app. 8 %) pedestrian walk
1:20 (5%) most of the functions

Landform & Land ART

The topography of a land can be remodeled to create an art-form, especially when viewing from
any higher point is a possibility. Land art is an intensive process but can create a lot of interest and
variation in the ground surface.

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Landform & Land Use [pictures as shown in class]

Valley floor preserved for Open space & agriculture. It is preferable to keep the valley floor
preserved as open space; Development should occur on valley sides
Landform & spatial perception:
Three variables of landform Affecting spatial perception:
• Floor Area
• Slope Steepness
• Horizon/ Silhouette line

Landform & spatial perception [pictures as shown in class]

The Floor Area refers to the base plane of the space and represents the usable area. Clearly, larger
the floor area, larger the space is Perceived to be. Slope Steepness assumes the function of the
vertical plane by acting as walls of an exterior space – steeper the slope, more pronounced is the
spatial delineation. The horizon/ silhouette line represents the edge between the perceived top of
the landform and the sky, or the sky line. It affects the perceived spatial limits and the area seen
within these limits is sometimes referred to as a ‘View-shed’.

Using the variables of floor area, slope steepness and horizon/silhouette line, a designer can create
almost limitless variety of spatial experiences –
The figures [pictures as shown in class] show how three vastly different spaces can be created by
varying the latter two, while keeping the floor area constant.
A sense of full spatial enclosure is obtained when a landform mass fills a 45° cone of vision.

How to decide on the topographical survey of a contoured site and contents of such survey
drawing- As explained in class
Interpolation of spot levels - As explained in class
Slope inventory and slope analysis: As explained in class

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PART-V: MAN-MADE ELEMENTS

MAN-MADE ELEMENTS OF LANDSCAPE

• Steps/Walls/Fences/Screens
• Landscape Shelters
• Outdoor/Street Furniture
• Landscape Features
• Pathways & Paved areas
A designed landscape needs something more than a splendid composition of natural elements, if it
has to be ‘LIVED IN’. A landscape structure and/or shelter is just that.
•EXTENSIONS OF THE BUILDING - Enclosed Porch/ Patio/ Pergolas
•COVERED WALKWAYS - Breezeways
•LANDSCAPE SHELTERS

i. LANDSCAPE STRUCTURES: Extensions of House

These act as transitional spaces between the building (mostly residences) and the adjoining
landscape and is the most convenient and serviceable structures. These are usually more protected
from sun and wind than are detached structures. Any type of roof like structure with solid, open or
semi-open may be attached to the building to create or enhance privacy, provide shade and
protection from rain and wind.
Pergolas, some arbors and covered breezeways fall under this Category. These structures play the
role of linking two separate parts of the landscape. Breezeways are structurally and architecturally,
a continuation of the building, built of the same materials.

ii. LANDSCAPE SHELTERS

Any structure having a semblance of floor, ceiling and walls would fall under this category. These
generally stand separate, often across the garden from the house, providing not only shade and
privacy, but also creating a sense of seclusion in natural setting. Different forms of these shelters
as mentioned below are basically variations on this basic idea.
•Arbours
•Bowers
•Gazebos/ Tea Houses/ Pavilions/Cabanas
•Loggias
•Poolside overheads

a. Arbors & Bowers

Taking its name from the Latin word for tree, an arbors is a simple garden shelter that provides
support for vines. The vertical supports may be evenly spaced metal bars/ bamboos or timber
sections. Its floor plan is usually rectangular. Visually, the most important aspect of an arbor is the
vine that covers it. It is the simplest of landscape structures.
In its traditional form, a bower is a garden shelter formed by vines. The distinction between a
bower and an arbor has become blurred, but a true bower has the shape of a simple house. A bower
may include either built-in seating or movable benches.

b. Gazebos/ Tea Houses/ Pavilions/Cabanas

Gazebos originated in medieval times, as watchtowers atop fortress walls. A modern gazebo may
be of any architectural style that suits a landscape setting. The traditional gazebo has a solid roof,
although it may have an open-grid structure for a roof. Most gazebos have floors and some have
built-in seating. Usually gazebo walls are open above seating level to allow visual continuity all
around. A belvedere is essentially a gazebo situated on high ground for a grand view of the
landscape. It is usually a permanent structure of a definite architectural style.

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iii. LOGGIAS
A loggia is a large rectangular outdoor sitting room with solid or Semi-open roof and usually
enclosed on one of the long sides. Normally set at the edge of the landscape, it offers a sweeping
view back across the grounds. These are often made to overlook lawns, plant beds and water
bodies like pools and lily ponds. Some variations of these are also called pavilions or cabanas.
Pool-side Overheads - Loggias when placed beside pools may be referred as poolside structures.

iv. STEPS, WALLS, FENCES & TRELLIS

Trellis is lattice work made of timber sections nailed together or to frames to form a grid. These
may be used to form the wall and roof Of landscape structures.
Steps and walls
Informally aligned stone steps interspersed with shrubbery
Formal and linear steps Flanked by walled planters
Timber steps with no solid risers
Trellis (fence with lattice work) are excellent physical and visual Barriers, allowing ventilation and
light (partial). These are also texturally rich and also act as an easy medium for plant grip.
The degree of visual continuity through a trellis may vary and can be designed in infinite number
of ways.

Brick wall may be erected with trellis-like effect

Trellis may also be fixed in planes other than vertical; the light and Shade effect on the floor is
noteworthy.
Many examples of stone Lattice can also be found in historic buildings:

v. LANDSCAPE FEATURES or ACCESSORIES

Ornamental Fountains/ Statues and sculptures/ Urns & Ornamental well

vi. PATHWAYS & PAVED AREAS

Characteristics of Pathway having direct bearing on design:

•Alignment – straight or curvilinear
•Width – depending on the user and usage intensity
•Treatment - Fully paved, semi-paved or sparsely paved
•Materials – (same as above)
•Paving pattern – Directional or non-directional/ continuous or in modules/ formal or informal/
groove or butt jointed etc.
Characteristics of Paved areas influencing design:
•Shape –geometrical or non-geometrical
•Position- with respect to building
•Treatment
•Materials
•Paving Pattern e.g. Basket weave pattern in TILES & BRICKS, Stone Paving in Informal
Random pattern: Suitable for Informal layout, Stone Paving in Random pattern with regular cobble
stone borders suitable for Informal layout, Herring Bone pattern in Bricks, Cast-in-situ concrete
panels with Brick edging as borders, Tile paving in regular pattern with wide joints filled with
differently coloured sealant
Semi-paved areas with grass joints or widely spaced Stepping stones set in grass
Winding path with closely spaced stepping stones: Create an image of wilderness

Quality Parameters of Paving

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Quality of Paving Blocks is as important to the landscape as the flooring to the interiors. Being a
‘finishing item’, paving is always seen and directly used by users as well as the visitors. Standards
referred are: IS 15658: Spec for Pre cast conc. Blocks for paving and EN1338:2003. The key
features from these standards that define the quality of paver blocks are:
i) Tensile splitting strength, ii) abrasion resistance, iii) water absorption, iv) compressive strength,
v) tolerances in dimension etc.

TENSILE SPLITTING STRENGTH

ABRASION RESISTANCE

WATER ABSORPTION

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

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TOLERANCE IN DIMENSIONS

vii. SITE FURNITURE

Elements placed in a landscape or streetscape for comfort, convenience, information, circulation

control, protection and user enjoyment are collectively referred to as site furniture. These are:
a. Seats & Benches
b. Signage
c. Bollards
d. Lighting
e. Tree grates and tree guards
f. Litter bins
g. Railings
h. Planters
i. Utility boxes
The design objectives of site furniture are as follows:
• Appropriateness in design and placement:
o Responding to the character of a site (i.e. whether a park or an urban square) and
o its existing and proposed functions
i. habits of particular user groups
ii. long-term maintenance
iii. strong enough to withstand vandalism
iv. suitability to particular climate and seasonal variation
v. suitability to the regional and local character

a. SEATS & BENCHES:

Styles:
•Back to back (bi-directional), Continuous, Pedestal/ wall mounted, Retaining wall tops, Steps,
Tree planters (‘bedi’)
Siting Considerations:
•VISUAL: take advantage of site views
•ENVIRONMENTAL: Provide a variety of options: sunlight / shade / quietude / activity /
Formality / informality
•FUNCTIONAL: Proximity to playgrounds for attendants to children/ Viewers of the game
Types: Ready made Garden Benches/ Custom made seats/ Retaining Wall tops
Material options:
• Timber - (Teak, Mahogony and other hardwoods)
• Stone – Sandstone, Marble and Granite
• Concrete – precast supports and slabs
• Metal- Cast Iron legs and frames with hardwood slats
• Metal- painted M.S. sections in squares or rounds

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b. SIGNAGE
Types:
• Instruction/ regulatory signs:
o Mandatory (Traffic signs),
o Prohibitory (‘No Smoking’ etc)
• Information signs:
o Directional
o Locational (Street names/park names)
o Identification (Object names like house/shop etc.)
o Display (Site Information)
Siting:
• Prominent positions not to be obscured by structures, growing trees or hedges
• Should be easily seen both by day and night
• Mounting height with respect to viewer to be considered. For vehicular traffic, bottom edge
of sign should not be more than 3’-6” to 4’-0” from ground.
• Number of signages should be as few as possible so that visual clutter is avoided
Message:
•Uniformity of appearance, consistent application of symbols in preference to text, standard
support structures, colour and type face and uniform positioning of signs are essential aids to
legibility.
•Too much detail weakens the impact of the message or ‘Retention Value’.
Lettering:
• to be bold and simple
•Degree of clarity and legibility of letters is not only determined by the size of the letters
themselves but also by the spacing between them.
•Motorway signs need to be very large because of its brief viewing time; signage aimed at
vehicular traffic requires an especially clear hierarchy of lettering.
•Similarly, sign areas can be smaller where intended for pedestrians

Where signs are free-standing, a simple supporting frame should be made by timber/tubular
steel or square section steel posts [steel has advantage as they combine strength with a
relatively small cross-section]

As important as the face of the sign is the rear and support structure which should be as
inconspicuous as possible, so as not to detract the attention of viewers from the opposite
direction. In practice, these are usually coloured black or dark grey.
Materials:
 Non-ferrous materials such as Aluminium or Al alloy which are reasonable in cost, resist
corrosion, light in weight and can be embossed when in sheet form are preferred.
 Vitreous enamel on a steel base is often used and has the advantage of colour fastness and
long life (stone enameled).
 Plastic signs usually of acrylic sheet are used either solid or transparent and illuminated
from behind. Acrylic signs are particularly suitable in corrosive atmosphere and situations
where minimum maintenance is required.
 Other materials: melamine faced plastic laminates bonded to plywood backings

c. BOLLARDS
There are primarily three ways of Traffic control:
•Change in paving materials
•Grade changes
•Bollards (walls, railings, hedges) - Bollards are vertical barriers which being freestanding objects,
are one of the most unobtrusive ways of preventing motor cars accessing pedestrian areas by
narrowing a space.
Materials:
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•Concrete Bollards- With the increased practice of pedestrian and vehicular segregation, Concrete
bollards are becoming common.
•Wood
•Steel bars and steel pipes with steel cables
With the increasing practice of pedestrian and vehicular segregation, soncrete bollards are
becoming common. The advantages are:

strong

Reasonably cheap

Causes minimum disturbances to the floorscape [when set in paving, bollards may be
surrounded by cobbles etc. to avoid cutting the slabs].
Form: Robust and simple to express trength; thin or over-elaboarte shapes do not express strength.
Metrics:

spacing is 5’-0” clear [as a barrier to vehicles] but with small cars in the market, spacing
can be brought down to 4’-6”

Height above ground: 2’ to 3’

Foundation 1’ to 1’-6” below ground on a 4” concrete base

d. LIGHTING (Additional notes to be referred)

The various types of Exterior Lighting are:
I. Street Lighting, II. Sports and Stadia Lighting, III. Security Lighting, IV. Edifice Lighting
V. Landscape lighting
Three fundamental types of landscape lighting on the basis of their purpose:
1. Functional: To illuminate various activity and use areas like verandah, deck, terrace, driveways,
paths and walks, etc. Light fittings under this category may include:
Pathway Lighting (Bollards),Wall mount lights (Bulkhead, bracket lights), Step Lights, Driveway
and Boundary Lights.
E.g. Wall mount decorative fixtures and bulkheads lit up the various levels of this multilevel
landscaped area. The step lights are primarily aimed at illuminating the steps for ease of
movement. In the process, those also draw people towards the front door.
2. Aesthetic or Effect:
To illuminate and dramatize different landscape elements like plants, landform, pools and other
water features,
man-made structures and sculptures etc. to dramatize the overall visual composition
3. Combined:
Other than the above, landscape lighting can serve dual purpose by acting as an ornamental
element by itself. The large lantern atop a brick pedestal is a feature by itself – both during the day
as well as night.

Amenity Lighting: Lighting suitable for the illumination of areas such as pedestrian walks,
squares, parks etc. where vehicular traffic is not normally found, for the purpose of safety and
security of users.
Considerations:

Functional requirements to be met, for example, level changes to be highlighted to avoid
potential hazards

Relationship with other street furniture, buildings, trees or planting

Avoid lights falling on bedroom windows

Take account of vandalism, especially destruction of lantern glass
Decorative lighting:

e. TREE GRATES & GUARDS

Tree Guards and Tree grates are ways to protect trees in public places

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f. LITTER BINS
Siting:
-Along main circulation areas or routes
-Places which are immediately available for use
-places easily seen & identified
-Close to seating areas
Considerations:

To be related to other site furniture like light/lamp posts, shelters, seats etc.

Problem of unpleasant odour and sight (lids with foot-pedals may be advantageous)

In areas with infrequent servicing, bins should be large enough to hold considerable
quantities of waste and be covered.

Not only hold litter, but shall also conceal the litter and the process of emptying

Vandalism

Hygiene (scavenging by street dogs, crows etc.); public are reluctant to push a dirty or
sticky flap to dispose off their rubbish, so an open-mouthed container that ‘invites’ litter
may be better in some cases. However, drainage holes are required for open bins.
Types:

Containers for mounting on lamp posts

Wall mounted types or those fixed to vertical surfaces

Free-standing but fixed

Movable containers for temporary use or large container
Materials:

Timber or composite FRP (Fibre reinforced Plastic)

Fibre-glass/PVC- press-moulded containers

Concrete

Sheet metals- glavanised or lead-coated steel sheet (or stove-enamelled)

Perforated metal sheet

Plastic coated steel [removable internal wire baskets (of galvanized M.S. wire) and
drainage holes are to be provided]

IMPORTANT NOTE:
-A good litter bin should not only hold litter, but also conceal it and should be easy to empty.
-Scavenging by street dogs, crows etc. should be discouraged by design.
For large containers used in case of infrequent servicing:

Covers or lids are preferable

Adequate self-drainage

Preferable with arrangement for burning refuse within the container

Material: concrete/ perforated metal

References:
• Time Saver Standards for Landscape Architects
• Introduction to Landscape Architecture by Michael Laurie
• Tropical Garden Plants by Bose & Choudhury
• Complete Gardening in India by Gopalaswamyienger

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