LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

15ARC 6.6, Class VI B

Ar. Prof. Sanjyot Shah

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MODULE - 1
Introduction to the discipline of landscape architecture

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A. Introduction to the discipline of landscape architecture.

1. Landscape as a broad terminology, Natural and Man-modified landscapes.
2. Brief history and the growth of landscape architecture as a design and
planning profession from gardens to regional landscapes.
3. Scope and nature of professional work in contemporary landscape
architecture, changing priorities of disciplinary approach: ecology,
biodiversity and sustainability.

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MODULE – 1 A – 1 - Landscape as a broad Terminology

• A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and

how they integrate with natural or man-made features.
• A landscape includes the physical elements of geo-physically defined
landforms such as (ice-capped) mountains, hills, water bodies such as
rivers, lakes, ponds, and the sea, living elements of land cover including
indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of land
use, buildings, and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting
and weather conditions.
• Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human
presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect a living
synthesis of people and place that is vital to local and national identity.

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MODULE – 1 A – 1 - Landscape as a broad Terminology

A natural landscape is
A Man modified landscape is the
the original landscape
landscape that takes form after
that exists before it is
it is acted upon by human
acted upon by human
culture.
culture. The natural
landscape and the
cultural landscape are
separate parts of the
landscape.

There are different types of natural landscapes on Earth –

including mountain landscapes, coastal landscapes and
riverine landscapes. Natural landscapes are made up of a
variety of geographical features known as landforms such as
hills, caves and valleys.
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MODULE – 1 A – 1 – Natural and Man modified Landscapes

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MODULE – 1 A – 1 – Natural and Man modified Landscapes

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MODULE – 1 A – 1 – Natural and Man modified Landscapes

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MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

Prehistoric:
Early cultures attempted to re-create or express in their built landscapes
the sacred meanings and spiritual significance of natural sites and
phenomena. People altered the landscape to try to understand and/or
honour the mysteries of nature. Early “landscape design” elaborated on
humankind’s intuitive impulse to dig and to mound. Our ancestors
constructed earthworks, raised stones, and marked the ground, leaving
traces of basic shapes and axial alignments. The purpose or function of
many of these spaces is still A speculation.
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MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

Prehistoric:
The chronology of Pre-historic age can be organized thematically, as
follows:
• The Cosmological Landscape, characterizes prehistoric earthworks and
patterns.
• Ancient Garden’s describe early parks and villas.
• Landscape and Architecture illustrates temple grounds, buildings, and important
site plans.
• Genius Loci depicts sacred landscape spaces.
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MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

Prehistoric:
The Cosmological Landscape:
2950 BCE–1600 BCE, STONEHENGE, ENGLAND
Built by different groups of people at different times,
this particular site on the Salisbury plain in southwest
England evolved from an earthen embankment, to a
wooden structure, to the stone circles. A circular ditch
and bank (or “henge”), about 330 feet in diameter,
marked the first phase of construction. Extant postholes
within the circle indicate the position of a wooden
structure from about 2600 BCE. The standing stones date
from subsequent centuries. All the shapes open to the
northeast, framing sunrise on the summer solstice.
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Illustrated history of world landscape architecture – Elizabeth Boults & Chip Sullivan
MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

Prehistoric:
The Cosmological Landscape:
200 BCE – 600 CE, NAZCA LINES, PERU
An extensive series of straight lines, geometric
shapes, and animal figures were inscribed on
the dry lake bed by overturning gravel and
exposing the lighter-coloured earth below.
Archaeologists are not certain which culture
produced these geoglyphs, nor whether their
purpose was related to religion, ritual, water
sources, or astronomy.
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MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

Prehistoric:
The Ancient Gardens:
2500 BCE–612 BCE, MESOPOTAMIAN HUNTING
PARKS.
Written accounts describe the large enclosed
parks of the Sumerians, Babylonians, and
Assyrians as being stocked with exotic plants
and animals—evidence of early management of
the landscape. The Epic of Gilgamesh
described the ancient Sumerian city of Uruk as
being composed of equal parts city, garden,
and field.
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MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

Prehistoric:
The Ancient Gardens:
546 BCE, PASARGADAE, PERSIA
The imperial capital of Cyrus the Great was described
by ancient Greeks and Romans as having a geometric
division of space defined by water and trees, an early
example of the four-square pattern later associated
with “paradise” gardens. Existing ruins show the close
relationship of buildings and gardens and the decorative
use of water. Gardens provided visual and climatic
comfort, not spaces for active use.
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MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

Prehistoric:
Landscape and Architecture:
1400 BCE, MORTUARY TEMPLE OF HATSHEPSUT,
DEIR EL-BAHRI, EGYPT
Dramatically sited at the base of a cliff on the west
bank of the Nile River, Queen Hatshepsut’s tomb
comprised a series of monumental terraces and
colonnades symmetrically organized around a
processional axis. Tomb paintings show
frankincense and myrrh trees imported from
Somalia; archaeological evidence confirms the
presence of exotic vegetation on the terraces.

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MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

Prehistoric:
Landscape and Architecture:
460 BCE, ACROPOLIS, ATHENS, GREECE.
A sacred hilltop site since the early Neolithic
period, the acropolis was once the location of a
Mycenaean fortress. It remains symbolic of
Classical Greek civilization and the architecture
of democracy.. The Parthenon dates from this
era and represents the Doric order—a
proportioning system based on the length and
width of the column style.

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MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

Prehistoric:
Genius Loci: (Spirit of the Place)

THE GANGES

More than 1,500 miles long, the Ganges River is

believed to be the sacred river of salvation by
Hindus. The riverside city of Varanasi became the
capital of the Kashi kingdom in the 6th century
BCE and remains a particularly holy place of
worship in northern India. The riverbank is lined
with temples, shrines, and steps, called ghats.

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MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

Prehistoric:
Genius Loci: (Spirit of the Place)

331 BCE, SIWA OASIS

Alexander the Great persevered through the

Libyan desert by following birds to the
western oasis, located in present day Egypt.
The Siwa Oasis has been home to Berber
tribespeople for hundreds of years, and was
established as the site of the sacred oracle
of Amun by the ancient Greeks.

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MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

Middle-age:
• As cultures advanced and humans gained more control over the natural world, human’s organized
the landscape for physical and spiritual comfort. The idea of the garden as a managed pleasure
ground evolved from the simple enclosed hunting grounds of Europe and Asia. Sacred structures
soon replaced sacred landscapes.
• The middle ages, 6th century to 15th century, saw the cultural advancement in Europe being
disrupted by the decline of roman imperialism and the power structures of antiquity being replaced
by humanist ideologies.
• From the fall of the Roman Empire to the rebirth of humanist ideals in the Renaissance, the focus of
western European culture turned inward. Lacking a central authority to maintain the political,
social, economic, and physical infrastructure, the landscape fell into ruin. People sought protection
within walled castles, and spiritual fulfilment within walled monasteries.
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MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

• Agriculture was the primary activity of life in the early Middle Ages. People were tied to the landscape
socially, politically, and economically in a feudal system where entitlement to land equalled power.
• The function of the early medieval garden in Europe was primarily utilitarian. People grew vegetables and
herbs for food and medicine. In the late Middle Ages, a money economy developed and cities emerged as
trading centres. An influential “middle class” began to evolve from the powerful guilds and flourishing
merchant class. As trade resumed and the landscape grew less frightening, people with means built
pleasure gardens.

• The gardens responded to a wide range of environmental and cultural conditions, but despite their
different contexts, they expressed a similar desire to create areas of significance through the functional
and aesthetic modification of nature. During the Middle Ages, nature was largely uncontrollable, and
political order was unstable. Whether for protection or defence, to mitigate forces of nature, or to create
a more perfect representation of nature, medieval gardens were enclosed. The act of enclosing space
creates a realm distinct from its surroundings.

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 MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

CLOISTER: The cloister garden is similar in

form to the peristyle garden of the Roman
domus—a colonnaded ambulatory surrounding
a typically square courtyard with a central
basin or fountain.
HORTUS CONCLUSUS: Depictions of medieval walled gardens are laden
with religious symbolism. A walled garden is mentioned in the Song of
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Solomon and is understood as representing the chastity of the Virgin
Mary.
MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

A TYPICAL MOORISH (Hispano-Arabic) COURTYARD:

Water in straight streams, and simple pools with
single jets, structure the geometry. Raised walkways
help sunken planting areas retain moisture.
Architectural features include a pavilion, arcaded
gallery, and mirador, or elevated porch. Often a
pavilion was placed at the intersection of pathways.

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MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

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WESTERN EUROPE, Fences, Walls and Fountains
MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

MOORISH SPAIN, Runnels and Raised Paths

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MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

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CHINA, Rocks and Water
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JAPAN, Courtyards, Lakes, and Islands
MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

Recent history:
• For the period before 1800, the history of landscape gardening (later called landscape
architecture) is largely that of master planning and garden design for manor houses, palaces
and royal properties, religious complexes, and centres of government.
• An example is the extensive work by André Le Nôtre at Vaux-le-Vicomte for King Louis XIV of France
at the Palace of Versailles. The first person to write of making a landscape was Joseph Addison in
1712. The term landscape architecture was invented by Gilbert Laing Meason in 1828, and John
Claudius Loudon (1783–1843) was instrumental in the adoption of the term landscape architecture
by the modern profession. He took up the term from Meason and gave it publicity in his
Encyclopaedia's and in his 1840 book on the Landscape Gardening and Landscape Architecture of the
Late Humphry Repton.

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MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

Recent History:
• The term "landscape architect" was used as a professional title by Frederick Law Olmsted in the United
States in 1863 and Andrew Jackson Downing (1815–1852), another early American landscape designer, was
editor of The Horticulturist magazine (1846–52). In 1841 his first book, A Treatise on the Theory and
Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America, was published to a great success; it was the
first book of its kind published in the United States. During the latter 19th century, the term landscape
architect begun to be used by professional landscapes designers, and was firmly established after
Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. and Beatrix Jones (later Farrand) with others founded the American Society of
Landscape Architects (ASLA) in 1899.

• International federation of landscape architects (IFLA) was founded at Cambridge, England, in 1948 with
Sir Geoffrey Jellicoe as its first president, representing 15 countries from Europe and North America. Later,
in 1978, IFLA's Headquarters were established in Versailles.

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MODULE – 1 A–3

Scope and nature of professional work in contemporary landscape

architecture, changing priorities of disciplinary approach
• Landscape design focuses on both the planning of a property and the specific garden
design of certain landscape elements and plants within it. The practical, aesthetic,
horticultural and environmental sustainability components are all considered in
landscape design. Landscape designers often collaborate with related disciplines such as
architecture, civil engineering, land surveying, landscape contracting, edaphology,
botany and artisan specialties. In landscape architecture the focus will be on projects
like urban planning, design of parks, civic and corporate landscapes, large scale
interdisciplinary projects and delegation to contractors after completing designs. The
contemporary sphere of landscape design is so great that it includes not only
landscaping design, but also complete improvement and re-planting of streets, roads,
urban centres, historical landscapes, industrial regions, etc.
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MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

Scope of work:
The Landscape Architect is required to provide services in respect of the
following:
• Site appraisal and suitability.
• Site planning.
• Landform and grading.
• Surface drainage design and water management.
• Irrigation design.

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MODULE – 1 A – 2 – Brief history and growth of Landscape

• Open space design - hard and soft areas.

• Planting design.
• Landscape structures and features.
• Garden Furniture design.
• Illumination design.
• Graphic design and signage.
• Co-ordination of external services.
• Periodic inspection and evaluation of works at site.

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The variety of the professional tasks that landscape architects collaborate on is

very broad, but some examples of project types include:
• Parks of General design and public infrastructure.
• Sustainable development.
• Stormwater management including rain gardens, green roofs, groundwater
recharge, Green infrastructure, and constructed wetlands.
• Landscape design for educational function and site design for public institutions
and government facilities.
• Parks, botanical gardens, and greenways.
• Recreation facilities; i.e.: playgrounds, golf courses, theme parks and sports
facilities.
• Housing areas, industrial parks and commercial developments.
• Estate and residence landscape planning and design.
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• Landscaping and accents on Highways, transportation structures, bridges, and

transit corridors.
• Contributions to Urban design, town and city squares, waterfronts, pedestrian
schemes.
• Tourist destinations, recreating historical landscapes, and conservation studies.
• Reservoirs, dams, power stations, reclamation of extractive industry
applications or major industrial projects and mitigation.
• Environmental assessment and landscape assessment, planning advice and land
management proposals.
• Coastal and offshore developments and mitigation.
• Ecological Design any aspect of design that minimizes environmentally
destructive impacts by integrating itself with natural processes and
sustainability.
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MODULE – 1 Ecology – Biodiversity - Sustainability

Landscaping refers to any activity that

modifies the visible features of an area of
land, including:
• Living elements - Flora and fauna.
• Natural elements - Landforms, terrains,
water bodies.
• Human elements - Structures, buildings,
fences, etc.
• Abstract elements - Lighting, weather,
etc.

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MODULE – 1 Ecology – Biodiversity - Sustainability

Threats to Landscape and biodiversity…..

Accelerated climatic changes has magnifying impacts on water and land resources,
agricultural and biological diversities. Unprecedented scale, pace and complexity of
resource management challenges-
• Habitat loss, fragmentation, degradation
• Invasive species
• Contaminants
• Hydrological impacts

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MODULE – 1 Ecology – Biodiversity - Sustainability

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MODULE – 1 Ecology – Biodiversity - Sustainability

What is conservation landscaping?

Working with nature to reduce pollution, conservation landscaping incorporates
environmentally sensitive design, low impact development, non-invasive native and
beneficial plants, and integrated pest management to create diverse landscapes that
help protect clean air and water, support wildlife, and provide a healthier and more
beautiful human environment.
• Conservation landscaping supports clean air and water by:
• Using plants that are adapted to local conditions and thus require less fertilizer and
pesticides.
• Trapping localized storm water on site with rain barrels and rain gardens to ensure slow
percolation and increased filtration of nutrients entering the groundwater.
• Reducing the amount of smog released into the air and the amount of atmospheric
deposition of nutrients into our water by reducing the amount of movable lawn area. 41
MODULE – 1 Ecology – Biodiversity - Sustainability

• Conservation landscaping supports wildlife by:

• Providing a diverse plant environment that attracts greater animal diversity and
fosters healthier ecological communities
• Creating migratory corridors of conjoined healthy ecological communities.
• Conservation landscaping supports a healthier and more beautiful human
environment by:
• Reducing the amount of pollution entering the environment.
• Demonstrating the beauty of well-maintained, natural landscaping.

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MODULE – 1 Ecology – Biodiversity - Sustainability

The eight essential elements…

A conservation landscape:
1. Is designed to benefit the environment and function efficiently and aesthetically for
human use and well-being .
2. Uses locally native plants that are appropriate for site conditions.
3. Institutes a management plan for the removal of existing invasive plants and the
prevention of future non-native plant invasions.
4. Provides habitat for wildlife.
5. Promotes healthy air quality and minimizes air pollution.
6. Conserves and cleans water.
7. Promotes healthy soils.
8. Is managed to conserve energy, reduce waste, and eliminate or minimize the use of
pesticides and fertilizers.
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MODULE – 1 Ecology – Biodiversity - Sustainability

Soil conservation is a set of management strategies for prevention of soil being eroded
from the earth’s surface or becoming chemically altered by overuse, acidification,
salinization, soil erosion or other soil contamination to retain the fertility of soil.
Soil conservation techniques:
Terrace farming
Broad flat steps or terraces are made on the steep slopes
so the flat surfaces are available to grow crops. They
reduce surface run off and soil erosion.
This method of farming uses “steps”, called anden. On
each anden, various crops are planted, and when it rains,
instead of washing away all of the nutrient in the soil, the
nutrients are carried down to the next level.

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MODULE – 1 Ecology – Biodiversity - Sustainability

• Inter Cropping
• Different crops are grown in alternate rows and
are sown at different times to protect the soil
from rain wash.

• Ploughing parallel to the contours of a hill slope

to form a natural barrier for water to flow down
the slope.

• Contour farming is the farming practice of

ploughing across a slope following its elevation
contour lines.

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MODULE – 1 Ecology – Biodiversity - Sustainability

• Crop rotation
• Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series
of dissimilar types of crops in the same area in
sequential seasons.

• A traditional element of crop rotation is the

replenishment of nitrogen through the use of
green manure in sequence with cereals and other
crops.

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MODULE – 1 Ecology – Biodiversity - Sustainability

• Shelter Belt
• In coastal and dry regions, rows of tree are
planted to check the wind movement to protect
soil cover. Shelter belt is a plantation usually
made up of one or more rows of trees or shrubs
planted in a manner so as to provide shelter from
the wind and to protect soil from erosion.

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MODULE – 1 Ecology – Biodiversity - Sustainability

• Mulching
• The bare ground between plants is covered
with a layer of organic matter like straw. It
helps to retain soil moisture.

• Mulching of soil with available plant residues

reduce soil loss considerably by protecting the
soil from direct impact of raindrop and
reducing the sediment carried with run off.

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MODULE – 1 Ecology – Biodiversity - Sustainability

• Contour barrier
• Stones, grass, soil are used to build
barriers along contours. Trenches
are made in front of the barriers to
collect water.

• Rock dam
• Rocks are piled up to slow
down the flow of water. This
prevents gullies and further
soil loss.
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MODULE – 1 Ecology – Biodiversity - Sustainability

Water conservation techniques

• Rain water harvesting
• A system which collects rain water from the roof
of a building and stores it for reuse.

• Water collected is then store in a tank , before

being pumped around the building, as and when
required.

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MODULE – 1 Ecology – Biodiversity - Sustainability

• Grey water recycling

• Any water that has been used in a building
except water from toilets, is called grey water.

• This may be reused for other purposes ,

especially landscape irrigation, Toilet flushes etc.

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MODULE – 1 Ecology – Biodiversity - Sustainability

• Watershed management
• The process of creating and implementing plans,
programs and projects to sustain and enhance
watershed functions that affect the plant, animal
and human communities within a watershed
boundary.

• Land use Planning

• Refers to rational and judicious approach of
allocating available land resources to different land
using activities and for different functions consistent
with the overall development goal of a particular
city.

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References:

• All sketches from the book; Illustrated history of world landscape architecture –
Elizabeth Boults & Chip Sullivan.
• Scope of work of a Landscape Architect: COA website
• Wikipedia
• ASOLA

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