What is LVDT?

Linear Variable Differential Transformer, LVDT is the most used inductive transducer for
translating linear motion into electrical signal. This transducer converts a mechanical
displacement proportionally into electrical signal.

Construction:

LVDT is a transformer consisting of one primary winding P and two secondary

winding S1 & S2 mounted on a cylindrical former. The two secondary winding have
equal number of turns and placed identically on either side of the primary winding as
shown in figure below.

A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former. Actually the movable core is made
of nickel iron with hydrogen annealed. Hydrogen annealing is done to eliminate
harmonics, residual voltage of core and thus provides high sensitivity. The movable
core also is laminated in order to reduce eddy current loss. The assembly of laminated
core is placed in a cylindrical steel housing and end lids are provided for
electromagnetic and electrostatic shielding. The displacement to be measured is
attached to this movable soft iron core.

LVDT- Working Principle:

Since the primary winding of Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is supplied
with AC supply, it produces an alternating magnetic flux in the core which in turn link
with the secondary winding S1 and S2 to produce emf due to transformer action. The
electrical equivalent circuit of LVDT is shown below.
Let us assume that the emf produced in secondary winding S 1 is Es1 and that in S2 is
Es2. The magnitude of Es1 and Es2 will depend upon the magnitude of rate of change of
flux (dØ / dt) as per the Faraday’s Law. The lower the value of ‘dt’, the more will be the
emf induced. But lower value of ‘dt’ means that core is moving faster. Thus we can say
that the faster the movement of core, the greater will be the magnitude of emf induced
in secondary windings.

To get a single output voltage from the Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT),
both the secondary winding are connected in series but in phase opposition as shown in
figure below.
Due to this connection, the net output voltage E0 of the LVDT is given as below.

E0 = Es1 – Es2

Since the secondary windings of LVDT are identical and placed symmetrically on either
side of core, therefore under normal position the flux linkage of both the secondary
winding S1 & S2will be same. This means Es1 = Es2 and hence net output voltage E0 of
LVDT = 0. This position of soft iron core is called NULL position. Thus NULL position of
Linear Variable Differential Transformer is the normal position of movable core where
the net output voltage is zero.

Now, as the core can either be moved toward right or left to the null position. Let us now
consider such movement of core under two cases.

Case-1: Core is moved left to the NULL position

When core of LVDT is moved to the left of the NULL position ‘O’ as shown in figure
above, theflux linkage of secondary winding S1 will become more than that of winding
S2. This means the emf induced in winding S1 will be more than S2. Hence Es1 > Es2 and
net output voltage E0 = (Es1 – Es2) = Positive. This means that the output voltage E0 will
be in phase with the primary voltage.

Case-2: Core is moved right to the NULL position

When the core of LVDT is moved toward right of NULL position ‘A’, you can guess what
will happen? Obviously the emf induced in secondary winding S 2 will be more than that
of S1. This means Es2 > Es1 and hence net output voltage E0 = (Es1 – Es2) = negative.
This means that the output voltage of LVDT will be in phase opposition (180 degree out
of phase) with the primary voltage.

From the above two cases, we can have the following conclusions:

1) The direction of movement of a physical quantity can be identified by the output

voltage of LVDT. If the output voltage E0 is positive, this means the physical quantity is
moving toward left.

2) If the output voltage E0 is negative, this will mean that the physical quantity is moving
in the right direction from the NULL position.

3) The amount / magnitude of displacement is proportional to the magnitude of output

voltage. The more the output voltage, the more will be displacement. But here is a clue.
You can’t take core out of the former; otherwise the output voltage will become zero.

4) In fact corresponding to both the cases i.e. whether core is moving left or right to the
NULL position, the output voltage will increase lineally up to a displacement of around 5
mm from the NULL position. After 5mm, output voltage E 0 becomes non-linear. The
graph of variation of E0with displacement is shown below.

Carefully observe the above graph. It may be noted from the graph that even at NULL
position (i.e. when there is no displacement) there is some output voltage of LVDT. This
small output is due to the residual magnetism in the iron core.

Application:

LVDT is used in those applications where displacement ranging from fraction of a mm to

few cm. As a primary transducer, it converts the mechanical displacement into electrical
signal.

Acting as a secondary transducer, it is sued for measurement of force, pressure, weight

etc.
Strain Gauge is basically a sensor used for the measurement of various physical
parameters like stress, strain etc. The working principle of strain gauge is based on
Piezoresistive Effect. This is why it is also often called Pizoresistive Gauge.

When a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, the dimension of conductor

changes. Change in dimension means change in radius and length of the conductor.
Since the resistanceof conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely
proportional to its area of cross-section, therefore a change in dimension of conductor
will cause a change in the resistance. Also, it has been observed that the resistivity of
conductor also changes due to strain in the conductor. This change in resistivity of due
to strain is called Piezoresistive Effect.

Principle of Strain Gauge:

Let us consider a conductor of length L and diameter D. This conductor is now stretched
by force F as shown in figure below.

Due to this applied force F, there will be a change in longitudinal and lateral dimension.
The length changes to L+ ΔL and diameter changes to D+ ΔD. It is obvious that in case
of positive strain i.e. when conductor is stretched, there will be a reduction in diameter
whereas increase in length. Hence the resistance will increase as per the formula given
below.

R = ρL/A …………….(1)

Where ρ = resistivity

A = Cross-sectional area

L = Length
But it has been observed experimentally that the increase in resistance of conductor is
more than the calculated value from equation (1). This extra increase in resistance is
attributed to the slight increase in resistivity of the conductor due to Piezoresistive
Effect.

Being a transducer, this physical change in dimension is converted in electrical

parameter i.e. resistance which is easily measured. Thus Strain Gauge converts stress /
strain into resistance.

Gauge Factor:

Gauge Factor is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to the per unit
change in length. This can be mathematically written as,

Gf = (ΔR / R) / (ΔL / L)

Where

ΔR / R = Per unit change in resistance

ΔL / L = Per unit change in length

Gf = Gauge Factor

As strain of an elastic material is defined as the per unit change in length, therefore

Strain, ε = Change in Length / Original Length

= ΔL / L

Hence,

Gauge Factor, Gf = ε(ΔR / R)