Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PHYSICS
I. INTRODUCTION – Nature of Science
a. Apply a scheme for classification
b. Identify the hypothesis that underlies an experimental design
c. Select appropriate tools and procedures in conducting investigation and/or
solving problems
d. Identify variables involved in an investigation
e. Interpret data accurately in an appropriate table, chart, or graph
f. Draw conclusions based on the available data
g. Make predictions based on conclusions from scientific experimentation
h. Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative observations on objects or
phenomena
i. Evaluate the social implications of controversial science and technology issues
II. CHEMISTRY
1. Matter: Its Composition and Properties
a. Classify matter according to characteristic properties
b. Give uses of materials based on their properties
2. Atomic and Molecular
a. Identify properties of sub-atomic particles
b. Perform calculations involving mass number, atomic number, number of
protons, electrons and neutrons
c. Identify the group and period where each element belongs
d. Select which model represents atoms, ions and molecules
e. Apply the valence shell electron pair repulsion theory in predicting molecular
geometry
3. Chemical Bonds
a. Differentiate the three types of chemical bonding
b. Use the periodic table to predict the types of bonding that will occur between
specific elements
c. Compare the different types of intermolecular forces and relate these to their
physical properties
4. Conservation of Matter and Stoichiometry
a. Identify which law of chemical combination applies to a particular situation
b. Determine the type of chemical reaction shown in a given situation
c. Balance a chemical equation that represents reactions relevant to daily life
d. Solve stoichiometric problems based on the mass relationships in chemical
reactions
5. Gases, Liquids and Solids
a. Compare the properties of gases, liquids and solids in terms of the kinetic
molecular theory
b. Solve quantitative problems based on the combined and ideal gas laws
c. Apply the gas laws in everyday activities
6. Acids and Bases
a. Compare properties of acids and bases
b. Relate pH values to everyday phenomena
7. Solutions
a. Identify factors that affect the degree of solubility and rate of solubility
b. Give the importance of electrolytes in living systems
c. Express solution concentration in percent by mass, mole fraction, molarity and
normality
d. Give some uses of colloids in food preparation, industry and in pharmaceutical
products
8. Chemical Thermodynamics
a. Differentiate heat from temperature
b. Identify the methods of heat transfer in various systems
c. Differentiate exothermic and endothermic reactions
d. Distinguish specific heat, heat of vaporization, heat of fusion, heat capacity,
heat of reaction and combustion
e. Identify environmental phenomena which use the concepts of entropy and
enthalpy
9. Chemical Kinetics and Equilibrium
a. Identify the factors affecting effective collision
b. Determine which factor affects the rate of a given reaction
c. Apply Le Chatelier’s principle to predict how equilibrium conditions change
when a system is disturbed resistance
10. Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry
a. Classify simple organic compounds based on their formulas and properties
b. Compare the properties of organic compounds and inorganic compounds
c. Give the importance of each of the biomolecules
11. Nuclear Processes
a. Apply the principles of radioactive decay in the synthesis of new elements
b. Balance nuclear equations
c. Give applications of radioactive decay in the synthesis of new elements
III. PHYSICS
1. Physical Quantities and Vectors
a. Differentiate vectors and scalar quantities
b. Analyze resultant vector quantities
2. Mechanics
a. Analyze quantitatively the motion of objects and the forces acting on them
b. Infer how force and energy affect the motion of objects
c. Relate work, power and energy
d. Use Newton’s Laws of Motion to explain everyday phenomena
e. Apply conservation of energy on physical problems involving moving objects
3. Electricity, Magnetism, and Electronics
a. Differentiate parallel and series circuits
b. Determine the current, potential difference and resistance in series and parallel
circuits
c. Relate current, voltage and resistance
d. Analyze energy transformations and transfer that occur in a system in terms of
the Law of Conservation of Energy
e. Identify the properties of electromagnetic waves and how they are used in
communication technology
f. Solve problems involving electricity and magnetism
g. Apply the different laws on electricity and magnetism to real life situations
h. Characterize the electronic tools and components used in common household
appliances
4. Thermodynamics
a. Characterize how heat is transferred in solids, liquids and gases by conduction,
convection and radiation
b. Solve for heat required/released for a system to change from one state to
another
c. Apply thermodynamic principles in refrigeration, air conditioning, and
environmental phenomena
5. Modern Physics
a. Compare fusion and fission as processes of energy production
b. Select situations where Einstein’s Theory of Relativity is applied
c. Given a physical situation involving relativistic motion, apply Lorentz velocity
transformations
d. Identify situations that exhibit photoelectric effect
6. Light and Geometric Optics
a. Apply the properties of wave interference, refraction, reflection and diffraction
in light
b. Use Snell’s law to calculate incident and refracted angles of a light ray at the
interface between media of varying densities
c. Predict the direction of the reflected light using the law of reflection
d. Relate dispersion to the color separation of white light as it travels through the
prism at non-normal incidence
e. Identify the different types of polarization and the different methods of
polarizing light
f. Describe qualitatively the intensity of the scattered light as it varies with
wavelength
g. Differentiate a converging lens from a diverging lens
h. Relate focal length to the object/image height and distance in mirrors and
lenses
IV. EARTH AND SPACE
1. Geology
a. Characterize the different layers of Earth’s interior and the processes that occur
in each layer
b. Describe the different movements of the Earth and its relation to the
occurrences of the different natural phenomena
c. Explain how weathering and erosion shape the surface of the Earth
d. Give ways how volcanism and diastrophism can be helpful and detrimental to
people
2. Hydrology
3. Meteorology
a. Identify the processes in the hydrologic cycle and their effects on the
environment
b. Differentiate fresh and saltwater in terms of properties and composition
c. Infer how bodies of water are interrelated
d. Differentiate the types of weather disturbances
e. Analyze how the interaction of Earth’s surface, water and air affect weather
and climate
f. Characterize the different layers of Earth’s atmosphere and how these affect
life on Earth
4. Astronomy
a. Compare the physical properties of Earth and other planets in the solar system
b. Analyze how Earth is affected by other bodies in space
c. Evaluate the impact of space exploration on humans, animals, plants and the
physical environment
5. Environment
a. Analyze how the quality of the environment and quantity of Earth’s resources
are affected by the growing population
b. Examine how human activities contribute to and help conserve resources for
the present and future generations
c. Identify situations that demonstrate interconnectedness among Earths systems
and processes
PHYSICS
Physics is the study of the physical world including motion, energy, light, electricity, magnetism, sound
etc.
NOTABLE SCIENTISTS
Aristotle (Greek 4th Century BC)
– Logic
– Studied motion
- Natural and violent motion
- 4 elements:
– Geocentric view
Democritus
– Father of the scientific method (along with the Englishman Francis Bacon 1500’s).
– Studied motion.
– Agreed with the Greek Aristarchos and Polish Copernicus (1473-1543) on heliocentric view
point. This led to his house arrest.
Isaac Newton
– English (1642-1727)
– studied light.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790),
– A scalar quantity is any quantity in physics the has magnitude, but not a direction associated with
it
Magnitude – a numerical value with units.
Scalar Examples: speed, distance, age, heat
VECTOR QUANTITIES
– A vector quantity is any quantity in physics that has both magnitude and direction.
Vectors are typically illustrated by drawing an arrow above the symbol. The arrow is used to convey
direction and magnitude.
r r r r
v , x ,a ,F
Vector Examples: velocity, acceleration, force
APPLICATIONS OF VECTORS
Vector Addition
- If 2 similar vectors point in the SAME direction, add them
- The size if the arrow conveys magnitude and the way it was drawn conveys direction
Vector Subtraction
- If 2 vectors are going in opposite directions, you subtract
Non-Collinear Vectors
- When 2 vectors are perpendicular, you must use the Pythagorean theorem
EXAMPLE:
Distance (Scalar)
- How far you travel regardless of direction
Displacement (Vector)
- Change in position, expressed using the Greek letter delta (Δ)
- To find the change you always subtract your FINAL and INITIAL positions
- Expressed as either Dx = x f - x i or Dy = y f - y i
KINEMATICS
- mathematically
- pictorially
- graphically
SPEED (Scalar), s
– rate of motion
d
s =
t
Instantaneous Speed
- a measure of an object’s distance traveled per unit time at a particular point in time.
Average Speed
Dx x - x initial
v = = final
Dt t final - t initial
- same direction
ACCELERATION (Vector), a
Dv v final - v initial
a = =
Dt t final - t initial
Positive Acceleration
- speeding up
- accelerating
Negative Acceleration
- slowing down
- decelerating
Instantaneous Acceleration
- a measure of an object’s velocity per unit time at a particular point in time.
- same direction
EQUATIONS OF MOTION:
1. v = v o + at
1
2. v avg =
2
(v + v o )
1
3. Dx =
2
(v + v o ) t
1
4. Dx = v o t + at 2
2
v 2 -v o 2
5. Dx =
2a
Dx is the displacement
Assume that t i = 0
GRAPHS OF MOTION
1. Position vs Time
slope = speed
steeper slope = faster speed
straight line = constant speed
flat line = no motion
acceleration is indicated by a curve: changing slope = changing velocity
2. Velocity vs Time
slope = acceleration
(+) – speeds up
(–) – slows down
straight line = constant acceleration
flat line = no acceleration (constant velocity)
3. Acceleration vs Time
Uniform accelerated motion:
Area under the line of the acceleration-time graph is the change in velocity
GUIDE TO SOLVING KINEMATICS PROBLEMS
1. Draw a labeled vector diagram showing the positive and negative direction.
2. Make a list of the given (include signs as needed) and unknown.
3. Decide what equation(s) you should use.
4. Write the equation(s) and solve for the unknown. Always include units in your first substitution
and in your final answer.
m
g = a g = -9.8
s2
– In the absence of air resistance, all falling objects have the same acceleration
If an object is in FREE FALL, gravity will CHANGE an objects velocity by 9.8 m/s every second.
FREE FALL
- when an object is influenced only by the force of gravity
PROJECTILE MOTION
PROJECTILE
– Any object which projected by some means or thrown into the air that continues to move due to
its own inertia (mass).
– Moves in TWO dimensions
v ox = v x = constant
m
v oy = 0
s
- To analyze a projectile in 2 dimensions we will use this equation:
1
Dx = v o t + at 2
2
Example: A plane traveling with a horizontal velocity of 100 m/s is 500 m above the ground. At
some point the pilot decides to drop some supplies to designated target below. (a) How long is
the drop in the air? (b) How far away from point where it was launched will it land?
y = 500 m x=?
voy= 0 m/s
g = -9.8 m/s/s
1 2 1
y = gt � -500 = (-9.8)t 2
2 2
t = 102.04
2
t = 10.1 sec
x = v ox t = (100)(10.1)
x = 1010 m
VERTICALLY LAUNCHED PROJECTILES
Since the projectile was launched at an angle, the velocity MUST be broken into components
v ox = v o cos q
v oy = v o sin q
- Tells that forces come in pairs: action force and reaction force
- Action and reaction force are equal in magnitude, are directed in opposite directions and
are acting on different bodies
- Explains what happens when we walk, how rockets, airplanes and the like are propelled,
and a lot more
FORCE
- no change in velocity
NET FORCE
- unbalanced forces that are not opposite and equal
- depends on the:
types of surfaces
force between the surfaces
- Friction is greater...
GRAVITY
- force of attraction between any two objects in the universe
- increases as:
mass increases
distance decreases
WEIGHT
- the force of gravity on an object
W = mg
where W = weight (N )
m = mass (kg )
g = acceleration due to gravity
m
= 9.8 2
s
- mass is always the same
AIR RESISTANCE
- “fluid friction” or “drag”
- force that air exerts on a moving object to oppose its motion
- depends on:
speed
surface area
shape
density of fluid
TERMINAL VELOCITY
- maximum velocity reached by a falling object
- reached when:
F grav = Fair
- no net force
no acceleration
constant velocity
CIRCULAR MOTION
PERIODIC MOTION
- motion that repeats itself after a fixed time
distance 2p r
time = =
rate v
CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION
- Object moves along a circular path.
v2
a= = w 2r
r
CENTRIPETAL FORCE
- A force directed towards the center of a circular path
mv 2
F =
r
Origin of Centripetal Force:
MOMENTUM
– quantity of motion
– inertia in motion
p = mv
�kg �
m�
where p = momentum � �
� s �
m = mass ( kg )
�m �
v = velocity � �
�s �
IMPULSE
- change in momentum
impulse = Dp = m Dv = F �
t
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
Law of Conservation of Momentum
- The total momentum in a group of objects doesn’t change unless outside forces act on the
objects.
p before = pafter
Elastic Collision
- KE is conserved
Inelastic Collision
- KE is not conserved
FORCES IN FLUIDS
Fluid
Buoyant Force
- upward force exerted by a fluid on an immersed object
- the buoyant force on an object in a fluid is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the
object
Buoyant force > Weight
- object rises
PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE
- pressure applied to a fluid is transmitted unchanged throughout the fluid
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
- as the velocity of a fluid increases, the pressure exerted by the fluid decreases
Venturi Effect
- fluids flow faster through narrow spaces causing reduced pressure
WORK
MACHINES
– tools that change the direction or magnitude of a force; it can do work with one movement.
TYPES OF SIMPLE MACHINES
1. Lever – is a board or bar that rests on a turning point. It involves moving a load around a
pivot the easier it is to move.
Classes and Classifications of Lever
In a Type 1 Lever, the pivot (fulcrum) is between the effort and the load. With this kind of
lever, the direction of force is changed. Effort applied downward moves the load up.
Effort applied upward moves the load down.
In a Type 2 Lever, the load is between the pivot (fulcrum) and the effort. With this kind of
lever, the direction of force is not changed. Pushing up on the lever arm pushes up the load.
Pushing down on the lever arm pushes down the load.
In a Type 3 Lever, the effort is between the pivot (fulcrum) and the load. With this kind of
lever, the direction of force is not changed.
The load moves in the same direction as the effort.
2. Inclined Plane – is a flat surface that is higher on one end and can be used to move an object
to a lower or higher place.
It is the simplest machine of all machines.
The longer the distance of the ramp, the easier it is to do the work; however, it will take a
much longer time needed to do the work.
Examples are ramp, slanted road, path up a hill slide.
3. Wedge – a simple machine used to push two objects apart.
It is also made up of two inclined planes which meet to form the sharp edge.
It is the active twin of the inclined plane; it does useful work by moving.
Examples are knives, axes, nails.
4. Wheel and Axle – a simple machine made of a large wheel secured to a smaller wheel which
is called an axle.
Examples are cars, roller skates, door knob, and bicycles.
5. Screw – is actually an inclined plane that winds around itself.
A screw has ridges and it is not smooth like a nail.
Some screws are used to lower and raise things.
They are also used to hold objects together.
Examples are bottle caps and light bulbs.
6. Pulley – is made up of a wheel and a rope.
If we had to lift a heavy load, pulley makes our work easier.
It changes the direction of the force making it easier to lift things in a higher area.
Examples are flagpoles, sailboats, and blinds.
COMPOUND MACHINES
– two or more simple machines working together such as car engines and sewing machine.
POWER
W
P =
t
where P = power (W )
W = work ( J )
t = time( s )
ENERGY
NON-RENEWABLE SOURCES
- energy source that is permanently depleted when used.
- Includes: coal, petroleum, natural gas, fossil fuels, and nuclear energy
– Derived from the Greek words therme and dynamis meaning “movement of heat”
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
When heat flows in or out of a system, the energy it gains or loses is equal to the amount of heat
transferred.
Temperature
- The degree of hotness or coldness of an object
- Temperature represents the average translational kinetic energy of the individual particles
in a system.
Temperature Scales
- Fahrenheit – water freezes at 32oF and boils at 212oF
Absolute Zero
- Total energy of the particles is zero
Temperature Conversions
Celsius to Fahrenheit
9
T F = TC + 32
5
Fahrenheit to Celsius
5
TC = (T - 32 )
9 F
Celsius to Kelvin
T K = TC + 273.15
Q = mC DT
ENTROPY
- the amount of disorder in a system
Convection
- Transfer in a fluid by movement of the substance itself
Radiation
- Energy transmitted by electromagnetic waves
Q = mL
where Q = heat during phase change
m = mass of sample
L = Latent Heat
Electric Field
Static Discharge
- movement of electrons to relieve a separation in charge
Insulators
- materials that don’t allow electrons to move through them easily
Electroscope
- instrument that detects the presence of electrical charges
- the leaves of the instrument separate when they gain either a + or – charge
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Circuit
- closed path through which electrons can flow
Current
- flow of electrons through a conductor
Resistance
- opposes the flow of electrons
V = I �R
where V = potential difference (V)
I = current (A)
R = resistance (W)
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
SERIES CIRCUITS
- current travels in a single path
I T = I 1 = I 2 = ...
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
- current travels in multiple paths
I T = I 1 + I 2 + ...
VT = V1 = V 2 = ...
HOUSEHOLD CIRCUITS
- combination of parallel circuits
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
– energy use of an appliance depends on the power required and time used
E = P �t
where E = energy(kWh)
P = power(KW)
t = time(h)
COULOMB’s LAW
Any two charged objects will create a force on each other. Opposite charges will produce an attractive
force while similar charges will produce a repulsive force. The greater the charges, the greater the
force. The greater the distance between them, the smaller the force.
MAGNETISM
Magnetic Field
- are around a magnet where magnetic forces act
Magnetic Domain
- groups of atoms with aligned magnetic poles
Speakers
- a device that can convert electrical energy to mechanical energy
- a wire coil moves back & forth as its magnetic field interacts with the field of a fixed
magnet
- forced vibration causes the cone to move creating sound
Motor
- an electromagnet rotates between the poles of a fixed magnet converting electrical energy
to mechanical energy
- a commutator reverses the poles of the e’magnet
- mechanical kinetic energy turns the generator shaft which creates electrical energy
AC and DC
Direct Current (DC)
- current flows in one direction
- electrical outlets
TRANSFORMERS
- increase or decrease AC voltage
- primary coil AC produces a magnetic field that induces AC in the secondary coil
Step-up Transformer
- increase the voltage
- more turns
- can be seen in powerplants
Step-down transformer
- decreases the voltage
- fewer turns
WAVES
Shorter wavelength
higher frequency
higher energy
Velocity (v )
- speed of a wave as it moves forward
v = l �f
where v = velocity (m/s)
l = wavelength (m)
f = frequency (Hz or s -1 )
SOUND
– Sound waves are mechanical in nature. They are produced from vibrating sources placed in a
material media thus they need a material medium to propagate.
– The vibrating source of a sound sets the particles of a medium in vibration such that sound travels
outward in the form of longitudinal waves. The vibration of the particles is parallel to the
direction of the sound wave.
– Sound cannot travel in vacuum because there are no molecules to pass on the vibration.
– Sound travels fastest in solids and travels slowest in gases. The speed of sound in air is 340 m/s.
– The speed of sound waves is also affected by temperature and humidity. Generally, the speed of
sound increases with increasing temperature in air. Sound travels slightly faster when humidity
rises.
– Sound waves are audible to the human ears within the frequency range of 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.
– Sound waves of frequency lower than 20 Hz are called infrasound and sound waves of frequency
higher than 20 000 Hz are called ultrasound.
HUMAN HEARING
sound wave → vibrates ear drum → amplified by bones → converted to nerve impulses in
cochlea
Pitch
– highness or lowness of a sound
– volume of sound
– regular pattern
Noise
– no definite pitch
– no set pattern
RESONANCE
Forced Vibration
– when one vibrating object forces another object to vibrate at the same frequency
Beats
– penetrate food and vibrate water & fat molecules to produce thermal energy
Infrared Radiation (IR)
Types:
UVA - tanning, wrinkles
UVB - sunburn, cancer
UVC - most harmful, sterilization
Ozone layer depletion = UV exposure!
X rays
– additive colors
– transparent material that absorbs all light colors except the filter color
Pigment
Vocabulary
Real Image
– Image is made from “real” light rays that converge at a real focal point so the image is
REAL
– Can be projected onto a screen because light actually passes through the point where the
image appears
– Always inverted
Virtual Image
– Curves inward
– Curves outward
– Reduces images
– Virtual images
– Forms real images and virtual images depending on position of the object
Concave Lenses
– Lenses that are thicker at the edges and thinner in the center.
– Regardless of speed or direction, observers always measure the speed of light to be the
same value.
– When an object is moving, its lengths shrinks in the same direction as its velocity
V. Spacetime Diagram
GENERAL RELATIVITY
I. Equivalence principle
II. Gravitational redshift
III. Geodesics
IV. Gravitational light bending
SCIENCE
– a systematic organized body of knowledge
– a body of knowledge that uses observations, research and experimentation to describe and explain
the natural phenomena
GOAL OF SCIENCE:
– to understand the world around us and use that understanding to our benefit.
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE:
1. FACTS – general truth about nature
2. CONCEPTS – combined facts or observations of regularity in events or objects
3. THEORIES– proven hypotheses that explain observed regularities
4. LAWS – always proven to be true and universal
TYPES OF SCIENCE
1. PURE SCIENCE
– science that focuses on theories of science and predictions that help understand the world
better
2. APPLIED SCIENCE
– observations and data in experiments are usually written down and presented in tables,
graphs or charts
– different types of graphs are appropriate for different experiments depending on the data
– in a table, the independent quantity is usually written in the first column and the
dependent variable/s in the succeeding columns
– make recommendations for further study and possible improvements to the procedure
7. Communicating Results
– the factor that may change as a result of changes made in the independent variable.
– all the factors that the experimenter attempts to keep the same
MULTIPLE TRIALS
– there must be multiple trials to consider an experiment valid
GRAPHS
A graph
– Bar Graph
– appropriate for comparing different trials or different experimental groups and for
presenting independent variables that are not numerical in nature
– Pie Graph
– Line Graph
– used to show the relationship of two variables: the dependent and the independent
variables must be numerical
– the dependent variable must be plotted in the Y axis and the independent variable in
the X axis
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIABLES
1. Direct Relationship
– when the independent variable increases the dependent variable also increases and vice
versa
2. Inverse Relationship
– when the independent variable increases the dependent variable decreases and vice versa.
MEASUREMENT
The measurement of any quantity is made relative to a particular standard or unit that must be specified
along with the numerical value of the quantity.
A scientific measurement requires:
1. the definition of the physical quantity
2. the units
PHYSICAL QUANTITY
2. Derived Quantities
– Zeros at the end of large standard numbers without a decimal point are not significant.
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION AND SIGNIFICANT ZEROS
When one or more zeros in a large number are significant,
– the exponent can be determined by the number of decimal places you have to move to get
only 1 number in front of the decimal
Large Numbers
– If the number you start with is greater than 1, the exponent will be positive
Small Numbers
– If the number you start with is less than 1, the exponent will be negative
EXACT NUMBERS
Exact numbers are
Some SI derived units have special names with SI base unit equivalents
UNIT CONVERSIONS
An important feature of the metric system is the use of prefixes to express larger and smaller values
of a quantity. For example, a large number of grams can be expressed in kilograms, and a fraction of a
gram could be expressed in milligrams.
Commonly used prefixes are listed in the table below:
MULTIPLICATION FACTOR
NAME SYMBOL WORD FORM STANDARD FORM POWER OF 10
peta P Quadrillion 1 000 000 000 000 000 1015
tera T Trillion 1 000 000 000 000 1012
giga G Billion 1 000 000 000 109
mega M Million 1 000 000 106
kilo k Thousand 1 000 103
hecto h Hundred 100 102
deca da Ten 10 101
deci d Tenth 0.1 10−1
centi c Hundredth 0.01 10−2
milli m Thousandth 0.001 10−3
micro μ, mc Millionth 0.000 001 10−6
nano n Billionth 0.000 000 001 10−9
pico p Trillionth 0.000 000 000 001 10−12
The use of prefixes containing multiples of 3 are the most commonly used prefixes.
SI PREFIX CONVERSIONS
Using prefixes, conversions between units can be devised.
STEPS IN PREFIX CONVERSION
1. Find the difference between the exponents of the two prefixes
2. Move the decimal that many places
a. Move left if converting from a smaller factor to a bigger factor
b. Move right if converting from a bigger factor to a smaller factor
Examples:
45 m m = _____ nm
m = 10-6 and n = 10 -9
( -6) - ( -9) = 3
big � small: 3 places to the right
45 m m = 45,000 nm
805 dm = _____ km
d = 10-1 and k = 103
(3) - ( -1) = 4
small � big: 4 places to the left
805 dm = 0.0805 km
– can be used to change from one unit of measure to another, or to find measures of
substances or processes that are equivalent
– a ratio, or fraction, or two measured quantities that are equal or equivalent in a problem
DENSITY
Density compares the mass of an object to its volume.
DENSITY OF SOLIDS
The density of a solid can be determined by dividing the mass of an object by its volume.
DENSITY USING VOLUME DISPLACEMENT
The density of the solid object is calculated by dividing its mass by the displaced volume.
To determine the displaced volume, submerge the solid in water so that it displaces water that is
equal to its own volume.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY (sp gr)
– is calculated by dividing the density of a sample by the density of water, which is 1.00 g/mL
at 4 °C.
– is a unitless quantity.
A substance with a specific gravity of 1.00 has the same numerical value as the density of water (1.00
g/mL).
- the rogue star material is less dense and becomes outer Solar
System planets
- the inner Solar System material is more dense and becomes
terrestrial planets
2. NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS – the solar system evolved from a rotating cloud called the solar
nebula
- the cloud shrank under the pull of its own gravitation or was
made to collapse by the explosion of a passing star
FORMATION OF EARTH
As the solar system was formed, layers formed on Earth. And as Earth formed, the decay of radioactive
elements and heat from high-velocity impacts caused the temperature to increase.
Lighter rocky components floated outward, toward the surface.
Gaseous material escaped from Earth’s interior to produce the primitive atmosphere.
EARTH’s MAJOR SPHERES
1. HYDROSPHERE
– Ocean is the most prominent feature of the hydrosphere
Nearly 71% of the Earth’s surface
Holds about 97% of Earth’s water
– Also includes fresh water found in streams, lakes and glaciers, as well as that found
underground
2. ATMOSPHERE
– Concentrated near the surface in a zone that extends from the ocean floor upward for
several kilometers into the atmosphere
4. GEOSPHERE
– Naturally occurring solid substances with an orderly crystalline structure and definite chemical
composition
– Precipitation
– Hydrothermal solutions
MINERAL GROUPS
Minerals can be classified based on their composition
1. SILICATES
Silicon and oxygen combine to form a structure called the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron. This
silicon-oxygen tetrahedron provides the framework of every silicate mineral.
2. CARBONATES
Minerals that contain the elements carbon, oxygen, and one or more other metallic elements
3. OXIDES
Minerals that contain oxygen and one or more other elements, which are usually metals
4. SULFATES AND SULFIDES
Minerals that contain the element sulfur
5. HALIDES
Minerals that contain a halogen ion plus one or more other elements
6. NATIVE ELEMENTS
Minerals that exist in relatively pure form
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
1. COLOR
Small amounts of different elements can give the same mineral different colors.
2. STREAK
Streak is the color of a mineral in its powdered form.
3. LUSTER
Luster is used to describe how light is reflected from the surface of a mineral.
4. CRYSTAL FORM
Crystal form is the visible expression of a mineral’s internal arrangement of atoms.
5. HARDNESS
Hardness is a measure of the resistance of a mineral to being scratched
a. MOHS SCALE
– Any solid mass of mineral or mineral-like matter occurring naturally as part of our planet
TYPES OF ROCKS
1. IGNEOUS ROCKS – formed by the crystallization of molten magma
2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – formed from the weathered products of preexisting rocks that
have been transported, deposited, compacted, and cemented
3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS – formed by the alteration of pre-existing rock deep within Earth
(but still in the solid state) by heat, pressure, and/or chemically
active fluids
THE ROCK CYCLE
– Granitic composition rocks are made mostly of light-colored quartz and feldspar
– Ultramafic composition rocks are made mostly from iron and magnesium rich
minerals
FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rocks are formed through weathering, erosion and deposition
EROSION involves the weathering and the removal of rock
DEPOSITION occurs when an agent of erosion—water, wind, ice, or gravity—loses energy and drops
sediments
COMPACTION is a process that squeezes, or compacts sediments
CEMENTATION takes place when dissolved minerals are deposited in the tiny spaces among the
sediments
CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
1. CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – composed of weathered bits of rocks and minerals
o Sandstone
o Conglomerate
o Coal
– Point source pollution comes from a known and specific location, such as factory pipes.
– Nonpoint source pollution is pollution that does not have a specific point of origin.
– Runoff is the water that flows over the land rather than seeping into the ground, often carrying
nonpoint source pollution.
EARTH’s ATMOSPHERE
The chemical composition of the atmosphere helps maintain life on Earth.
Pollution in the Air
The increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has altered the carbon cycle and contributed to global
warming—the unnatural warming of the lower atmosphere.
Through a series of chemical reactions, these pollutants in the air are converted into acids that are a major
cause of acid precipitation.
Land Resources
Earth’s land provides soil and forests, as well as mineral and energy resources
Damage to Land Resources
Mines produce many mineral resources, but mines are destroying, soil, vegetation, and Earth’s contours.
PROTECTING RESOURCES
1. Keeping Water Clean and Safe
a. Conservation is the careful use of resources.
b. Pollution prevention means stopping pollution from entering the environment.
c. The Clean Water Act (CWA) required industries to reduce or eliminate point source
pollution into surface waters.
d. The Safe Drinking Water Act helped protect drinking resources.
2. Protecting the Air
a. Clean Air Act, the nation’s most important air pollution law.
b. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) established for six “criteria”
pollutants known to cause health problems – carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particulates (fine particles).
3. Caring for Land Resources
a. Protecting land resources involves preventing pollution and managing land resources
wisely.
b. Compost is partly decomposed organic material that can be used as fertilizer.
c. Recycling is the collecting and processing of used items so that they can be made into
new products.
WEATHERING
MECHANICAL WEATHERING
Mechanical weathering occurs when physical forces break rock into smaller and smaller pieces without
changing the rock’s mineral composition.
In nature three physical process are especially important causes of weathering: frost wedging, unloading,
and biological activity.
1. Frost wedging
– The mechanical breakup of rock caused by the expansion of freezing water in cracks and
crevices
– Sections of rock that are wedged loose may tumble into large piles called talus, which
typically form at the base of steep, rocky cliffs.
2. Unloading
– Reduced pressure on igneous rock causes it to expand and allows slabs of outer rock to
break off in layers in a process called exfoliation.
3. Biological activity
– The activity of organisms, including plants, burrowing animals, and humans, can also
cause mechanical weathering.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Chemical weathering is the transformation of rock into one or more new compounds.
1. Chemical Weathering of Granite
– Chemical weathering is most effective in areas with high temperatures and abundant
moisture.
DIFFERENTIAL WEATHERING
– Regolith is the layer of rock and mineral fragments that covers most of Earth’s land surface.
1. Soil Composition
– Soil has four major components: mineral matter, or broken-down rock; humus, which is
the decayed remains of organisms; water; and air.
Composition by Volume of Good-Quality Soil
2. Soil Texture
Silt
– Loam (a mixture of all three sizes) is best suited for plant life.
3. Soil Structure
– Transported soil—parent material has been carried from elsewhere and deposited
2. Time
– Angle
Soil temperature
Moisture
THE SOIL PROFILE
Soil varies in composition, texture, structure, and color at different depths. Soil horizons are zones or
layers of soil. A soil profile is a vertical section through all the soil horizons.
– The B horizon is subsoil and contains clay particles washed out from the A horizon.
– Rates of Erosion
– Human activities that remove natural vegetation, such as farming, logging, and
construction, have greatly accelerated erosion.
– Sediment Deposition
– Controlling Erosion
– Terracing hillsides
– Rotating crops
MASS MOVEMENTS
TRIGGERS OF MASS MOVEMENTS
– The transfer of rock and soil downslope due to gravity is called mass movement.
– Among the factors that commonly trigger mass movements are saturation of surface materials
with water, oversteepening of slopes, removal of vegetation, and earthquakes.
TYPES OF MASS MOVEMENTS
Geologists classify mass movements based on the kind of material that moves, how it moves, and the
speed of movement.
1. Rockfalls
– A rockfall occurs when rocks or rocks fragments fall freely through the air.
2. Slides
– Water constantly moves among the oceans, the atmosphere, the solid Earth, and the biosphere.
This unending circulation of Earth’s water supply is
the water cycle.
Processes involved in the cycle are:
– Precipitation
– Evaporation
– Infiltration
o The movement of surface water into rock or soil through cracks and pore spaces
– Runoff
– Transpiration
o The release of water into the atmosphere from plants through the ground
Earth’s Water Balance
Balance in the water cycle means the average annual precipitation over Earth equals the amount of water
that evaporates.
STREAMFLOW
– The ability of a stream to erode and transport materials depends largely on its velocity.
o Gradient is the slope or steepness of a stream channel.
– Channel Characteristics
o The stream channel is the course the water in a stream follows.
– Discharge of a stream is the volume of water flowing past a certain point in a given unit of time.
CHANGES FROM UPSTREAM TO DOWNSTREAM
While gradient decreases between a stream’s headwaters and mouth, discharge increases.
1. PROFILE
Velocity
Discharge
Channel size
Factors that decrease downstream:
Gradient or slope
Channel roughness
2. BASE LEVEL
Ultimate—sea level
Temporary or local
– A stream in a broad, flat-bottomed valley that is near its base level often develops a
course with many bends called meanders.
THE WORK OF STREAMS
EROSION
– Streams generally erode their channels, lifting loose particles by abrasion, grinding, and by
dissolving soluble material.
DEPOSITION
– Deposition occurs as streamflow drops below the critical settling velocity of a certain particle
size. The deposits are called alluvium.
– Deltas are an accumulation of sediment formed where a stream enters a lake or ocean.
– A natural levee parallels a stream and helps to contain its waters, except during floodstage.
STREAM VALLEYS
1. NARROW VALLEYS
– A narrow V-shaped valley shows that the stream's primary work has been downcutting
toward base level
Rapids
Waterfalls
2. WIDE VALLEYS
– The floodplain is the flat, low-lying portion of a stream valley subject to periodic
flooding
Meanders
Cutoffs
Oxbow lakes
FLOODS AND FLOOD CONTROL
– A flood occurs when the discharge of a stream becomes so great that it exceeds the capacity of its
channel and overflows its banks.
– Measures to control flooding include artificial levees, flood control dams, and placing limits on
floodplain development.
DRAINAGE BASINS
– A divide is an imaginary line that separates the drainage basins of one stream from another.
WATER BENEATH THE SURFACE
DISTRIBUTION AND MOVEMENT OF WATER UNDERGROUND
– Much of the water in soil seeps downward until it reaches the zone of saturation.
– The zone of saturation is the area where water fills all of the open spaces in sediment and rock.
o Groundwater is the water within this zone.
o The water table is the upper level of the saturation zone of groundwater.
– Movement
o Groundwater moves by twisting and turning through interconnected small openings.
o The groundwater moves more slowly when the pore spaces are smaller.
– Porosity
o The percentage of pore spaces
o Determines how much groundwater can be stored
– Permeability
o Ability to transmit water through connected pore spaces
o Aquifers are permeable rock layers or sediments that transmit groundwater freely
SPRINGS
A spring forms whenever the water table intersects the ground surface.
– Hot Springs
o Water is 6–9 ºC warmer than the mean air temperature of the locality.
– Geysers
o Intermittent hot springs
WELLS
A well is a hole bored into the zone of saturation
– An artesian well is any formation in which groundwater rises on its own under pressure.
– Contamination
CAVERNS
A cavern is a naturally formed underground chamber.
– Erosion forms most caverns at or below the water table in the zone of saturation.
– Composed of dripstone
– Common features
o Sinkholes—surface depressions
– Ice masses that slowly advance down mountain valleys originally occupied by streams.
– A stream of ice that flows between steep rock walls from near the top of the mountain
valley.
2. Ice Sheets
– Ice sheets are enormous ice masses that flow in all directions from one or more centers
and cover everything but the highest land.
– Ice sheets are sometimes called continental ice sheets because they cover large regions
where the climate is extremely cold.
– Chemical weathering is not completely absent in deserts. Over long time spans, clay and
thin soils do form.
– In the desert, most streams are ephemeral—they only carry water after it rains.
BASIN AND RANGE: A Desert Landscape
Most desert streams dry up long before they ever reach the ocean. The streams are quickly depleted by
evaporation and soil infiltration.
Interior drainage into basins produces
– alluvial fan – a fan-shaped deposit of sediment formed when a stream’s slope is abruptly
reduced
– playa lake – a flat area on the floor of an undrained desert basin (playa) that fills and
becomes a lake after heavy rain
Most desert erosion results from running water. Although wind erosion is more significant in deserts than
elsewhere, water does most of the erosional work in deserts.
LANDSCAPES SHAPED BY WIND
WIND EROSION
Wind erodes in the desert in two ways:
1. Deflation is the lifting and removal of loose particles such as clay and silt. It produces
– Blowouts
– Desert pavement – a layer of coarse pebbles and gravel created when wind
removed the finer material
2. Abrasion
WIND DEPOSITS
The wind can create landforms when it deposits its sediments, especially in deserts and along coasts. Both
layers of loess and sand dunes are landscape features deposited by the wind.
1. Loess
– Unlike deposits of loess, which form blanketlike layers over broad areas, winds
commonly deposit sand in mounds or ridges called dunes.
– Characteristic features
– Barchan dunes
– Transverse dunes
– Barchanoid dunes
– Longitudinal dunes
– Parabolic dunes
– Star dunes
EARTHQUAKES AND EARTH’S INTERIOR
EARTHQUAKES
CAUSE OF EARTHQUAKES
ELASTIC REBOUND HYPOTHESIS
– Most earthquakes are produced by the rapid release of elastic energy stored in rock that has been
subjected to great forces.
– When the strength of the rock is exceeded, it suddenly breaks, causing the vibrations of an
earthquake.
AFTERSHOCKS AND FORESHOCKS
– Are push-pull waves that push (compress) and pull (expand) in the direction that
the waves travel
– The epicenter is located using the difference in the arrival times between P and S wave
recordings, which are related to distance.
2. Earthquake Direction
– Travel-time graphs from three or more seismographs can be used to find the exact
location of an earthquake epicenter.
3. Earthquake Zones
– Derived from the amount of displacement that occurs along the fault zone
– Moment magnitude is the most widely used measurement for earthquakes because it is the only
magnitude scale that estimates the energy released by earthquakes.
– Unreinforced stone or brick buildings are the most serious safety threats
– A tsunami triggered by an earthquake occurs where a slab of the ocean floor is displaced
vertically along a fault.
– A tsunami also can occur when the vibration of a quake sets an underwater landslide into
motion.
– Although tsunamis travel quickly, there is sufficient time to evacuate all but the area
closest to the epicenter.
3. OTHER DANGERS
a. Landslides
– With many earthquakes, the greatest damage to structures is from landslides and
ground subsidence, or the sinking of the ground triggered by vibrations.
b. Fire
– In the San Francisco earthquake of 1906, most of the destruction was caused by
fires that started when gas and electrical lines were cut.
PREDICTING EARTHQUAKES
1. Short-Range Predictions
– So far, methods for short-range predictions of earthquakes have not been successful.
2. Long-Range Forecasts
– Scientists don’t yet understand enough about how and where earthquakes will occur to
make accurate long-term predictions.
– A seismic gap is an area along a fault where there has not been any earthquake activity
for a long period of time.
EARTH’S LAYERED STRUCTURE
LAYERS DEFINED BY COMPOSITION
Earth’s interior consists of three major zones defined by their chemical composition—the crust, mantle,
and core.
1. Crust
– Thin, rocky outer layer
– Varies in thickness
– Basaltic composition
– Composition of the uppermost mantle is the igneous rock peridotite (changes at greater
depths).
3. Core
– Below mantle
– Upper mantle
– To a depth of about 660 kilometers
– 660–2900 km
– Liquid layer
– 2270 km thick
– Absence of P waves from about 105 degrees to 140 degrees around the globe from an
earthquake
– Can be explained if Earth contains a core composed of materials unlike the overlying
mantle
DISCOVERING EARTH’S COMPOSITION
1. Crust
– Early seismic data and drilling technology indicate that the continental crust is mostly
made of lighter, granitic rocks.
2. Mantle
– Some of the lava that reaches Earth’s surface comes from asthenosphere within.
3. Core
– Earth’s core is thought to be mainly dense iron and nickel, similar to metallic meteorites.
The surrounding mantle is believed to be composed
of rocks similar to stony meteorites.
PLATE TECTONICS
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
Wegener’s continental drift hypothesis stated that the continents had once been joined to form a single
supercontinent.
Wegener proposed that the supercontinent, Pangaea, began to break apart 200 million years ago and form
the present landmasses.
Evidence
– Matching Fossils
o Fossil evidence for continental drift includes several fossil organisms found on different
landmasses.
– Ancient Climates
PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
Wegener could not provide an explanation of exactly what made the continents move. News technology
lead to findings which then lead to a new theory called plate tectonics.
EARTH’S MAJOR ROLES
According to the plate tectonics theory, the uppermost mantle, along with the overlying crust, behaves as
a strong, rigid layer. This layer is known as the lithosphere.
– A plate is one of numerous rigid sections of the lithosphere that move as a unit over the material
of the asthenosphere.
TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES
1. Divergent boundaries (also called spreading centers) are the place where two plates move apart.
2. Convergent boundaries form where two plates move together.
3. Transform fault boundaries are margins where two plates grind past each other without the
production or destruction of the lithosphere.
ACTIONS AT PLATE BOUNDARIES
DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES
Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading
– Oceanic ridges are continuous elevated zones on the floor of all major ocean basins. The rifts at
the crest of ridges represent divergent plate boundaries.
– Rift valleys are deep faulted structures found along the axes of divergent plate boundaries. They
can develop on the seafloor or on land.
– When spreading centers develop within a continent, the landmass may split into two
or more smaller segments, forming a rift.
CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
– A subduction zone occurs when one oceanic plate is forced down into the mantle beneath a
second plate.
– Oceanic-Continental
o Denser oceanic slab sinks into the asthenosphere.
o Continental volcanic arcs form in part by volcanic activity caused by the subduction of
oceanic lithosphere beneath a continent.
o Examples include the Andes, Cascades, and the Sierra Nevadas.
– Oceanic-Oceanic
o Two oceanic slabs converge and one descends beneath the other.
– Continental-Continental
o When subducting plates contain continental material, two continents collide.
o This kind of boundary can produce new mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas.
– Transform faults
o Most join two segments of a mid-ocean ridge.
o At the time of formation, they roughly parallel the direction of plate movement.
– Normal polarity—when rocks show the same magnetism as the present magnetism field
– Reverse polarity—when rocks show the opposite magnetism as the present magnetism field
EVIDENCE FOR PLATE TECTONICS
The discovery of strips of alternating polarity, which lie as mirror images across the ocean ridges, is
among the strongest evidence of seafloor spreading.
1. Earthquake Patterns
– Scientists found a close link between deep-focus earthquakes and ocean trenches.
– The absence of deep-focus earthquakes along the oceanic ridge system was shown to be
consistent with the new theory.
2. Ocean Drilling
– The data on the ages of seafloor sediment confirmed what the seafloor spreading
hypothesis predicted.
– The youngest oceanic crust is at the ridge crest, and the oldest oceanic crust is at the
continental margins.
3. Hot Spots
– A hot spot is a concentration of heat in the mantle capable of producing magma, which
rises to Earth’s surface; The Pacific plate moves over a hot spot, producing the Hawaiian
Islands.
– Hot spot evidence supports that the plates move over the Earth’s surface.
MECHANISMS OF PLATE MOTION
CAUSES OF PLATE MOTION
Scientists generally agree that convection occurring in the mantle is the basic driving force for plate
movement.
– Slab-pull is a mechanism that contributes to plate motion in which cool, dense oceanic crust sinks
into the mantle and “pulls” the trailing lithosphere along. It is thought to be the primary
downward arm of convective flow in the mantle.
– Ridge-push causes oceanic lithosphere to slide down the sides of the oceanic ridge under the pull
of gravity. It may contribute to plate motion.
MANTLE CONVECTION
– Mantle plumes are masses of hotter-than normal mantle material that ascend toward the surface,
where they may lead to igneous activity.
– The unequal distribution of heat within Earth causes the thermal convection in the mantle that
ultimately drives plate motion.
VOLCANOES AND OTHER IGNEOUS ACTIVITY
FACTORS AFFECTING ERUPTIONS
Factors that determine the violence of an eruption:
1. Composition of the magma
2. Temperature of the magma
3. Dissolved gases in the magma
VISCOSITY − Viscosity is the measure of a material's resistance to flow.
Factors affecting viscosity
1. Temperature (hotter magmas are less viscous)
2. Composition (silica content)
a. High silica − high viscosity
b. Low silica − more fluid (e.g., basaltic lava)
DISSOLVED GASES
– A vent is an opening in the surface of Earth through which molten rock and gases are released.
VOLCANIC MATERIAL
1. Lava Flows
– The fragments ejected during eruptions range in size from very fine duct and volcanic ash
(less than 2 millimeters) to pieces that weigh several tons.
Types of Pyroclastic Materials
1. Ash and dust – fine, glassy fragments
2. Pumice − frothy, air-filled lava
3. Lapilli − walnut-sized particles
4. Cinders − pea-sized particles
Particles larger than lapilli
1. Blocks − hardened lava
2. Bombs − ejected as hot lava
ANATOMY OF A VOLCANO
– A crater is the depression at the summit of a volcano or that which is produced by a meteorite
impact.
– Shield volcanoes are broad, gently sloping volcanoes built from fluid basaltic lavas.
2. Cinder Cones
– Cinder cones are small volcanoes built primarily of pyroclastic material ejected from
a single vent.
– Composite cones are volcanoes composed of both lava flows and pyroclastic
material.
– Large size
– Nearly circular
– Formed by collapse
– Intrusive igneous bodies, or plutons, are generally classified according to their shape, size, and
relationship to the surrounding rock layers.
SILLS AND LACCOLITHS
Sills and laccoliths are plutons that form when magma is intruded close to the surface.
1. Sills − resemble buried lava flows and may exhibit columnar joints.
2. Laccoliths − lens-shaped masses that arch overlying strata upward.
DIKES
Dikes are tabular-shaped intrusive igneous features that cut across preexisting rock layers.
– Many dikes form when magma from a large magma chamber invades fractures in the surrounding
rocks.
BATHOLITHS
Batholiths are large masses of igneous rock that formed when magma intruded at depth, became
crystallized, and subsequently was exposed by erosion.
– An intrusive igneous body must have a surface exposure greater than 100 square kilometers to be
considered a batholith.
ORIGIN OF MAGMA
Geologists conclude that magma originates when essentially solid rock, located in the crust and upper
mantle, partially melts.
The most obvious way to generate magma from solid rock is to raise the temperature above the level at
which the rock begins to melt.
ROLE OF HEAT
– The geothermal gradient—Earth’s natural temperature increases with depth but is not sufficient to
melt rock in the lower crust and upper mantle
ROLE OF WATER
– Rising magma can form volcanic island arcs in an ocean (Aleutian Islands).
Ocean-Continent
– Most intraplate volcanism occurs where a mass of hotter than normal mantle material called a
mantle plume rises toward the surface.
– Deformation is a general term that refers to all changes in the original shape and/or size of a rock
body.
o Most crustal deformation occurs along plate margins.
– Ductile deformation is a type of solid state flow that produces a change in the size and shape
of an object without fracturing the object.
2. Rock Type
Mineral composition and texture of a rock also greatly affect how it will deform.
3. Time
Forces that are unable to deform rock when first applied may cause rock to flow if the force is
maintained over a long period of time.
TYPES OF STRESS
The three types of stresses that rocks commonly undergo are tensional stress, compressional stress, and
shear stress.
FOLDS
1. Anticlines − most commonly formed by the upfolding, or arching, of rock layers.
2. Synclines − linear downfolds in sedimentary strata.
− often found in association with anticlines.
3. Monoclines − large step-like folds in otherwise horizontal sedimentary strata.
FAULTS
1. Normal Faults
– Normal faults occur when the hanging wall block moves down relative to the footwall
block.
2. Reverse Faults and Thrust Faults
– Reverse faults are faults in which the hanging wall block moves up relative to the
footwall block.
– Thrust faults are reverse faults with dips less than 45°.
3. Strike-Slip Fault
– Strike-slip faults are faults in which the movement is horizontal and parallel to the trend,
or strike, of the fault surface.
4. Joints
– Mountains that are formed primarily by folding are called folded mountains.
2. Fault-Block Mountains
– Large-scale normal faults are associated with structures called fault-block mountains.
– Fault-block mountains are formed as large blocks of crust are uplifted and tilted along
normal faults.
– When upwarping produces a circular or elongated structure, the feature is called a dome.
– An unconformity represents a long period during which deposition stopped, erosion removed
previously formed rocks, and then deposition resumed.
– An angular unconformity indicates that during the pause in deposition, a period of deformation
(folding or tilting) and erosion occurred.
– A nonconformity is when the erosional surface separates older metamorphic or intrusive igneous
rocks from younger sedimentary rocks.
– A disconformity is when two sedimentary rock layers are separated by an erosional surface
CORRELATION OF ROCK LAYERS
Correlation is establishing the equivalence of rocks of similar age in different areas.
FOSSILS: Evidence of Past Life
Fossil Formation
– Fossils are the remains or traces of prehistoric life. They are important components of sediment
and sedimentary rocks.
– The type of fossil that is formed is determined by the conditions under which an organism died
and how it was buried.
Unaltered Remains
• Some remains of organisms—such as teeth, bones, and shells—may not have been
altered, or may have changed hardly at all over time.
Altered Remains
• Two conditions are important for preservation: rapid burial and the possession of hard
parts
FOSSILS AND CORRELATION
The principle of fossil succession states that fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and
determinable order. Therefore, any time period can be recognized by its fossil content.
Index fossils are widespread geographically, are limited to a short span of geologic time, and occur in
large numbers.
Interpreting Environments
Fossils can also be used to interpret and describe ancient environments
DATING WITH RADIOACTIVITY
RADIOACTIVITY − spontaneous decay of certain unstable atomic nuclei
HALF-LIFE − the amount of time necessary for one-half of the nuclei in a sample to decay to a
stable isotope.
RADIOMETRIC DATING
Each radioactive isotope has been decaying at a constant rate since the formation of the rocks in which it
occurs.
Radiometric dating is the procedure of calculating the absolute ages of rocks and minerals that contain
radioactive isotopes.
As a radioactive isotope decays, atoms of the daughter product are formed and accumulate.
An accurate radiometric date can be obtained only if the mineral remained in a closed system during the
entire period since its formation.
DATING WITH CARBON-14
Radiocarbon dating is the method for determining age by comparing the amount of carbon-14 to the
amount of carbon-12 in a sample.
When an organism dies, the amount of carbon-14 it contains gradually decreases as it decays. By
comparing the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 in a sample, radiocarbon dates can be determined.
IMPORTANCE OF RADIOMETRIC DATING
Radiometric dating has supported the ideas of James Hutton, Charles Darwin, and others who inferred
that geologic time must be immense.
THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
– Eons represent the greatest expanses of time. Eons are divided into eras. Each era is subdivided
into periods. Finally, periods are divided into smaller units called epochs.
– There are three eras within the Phanerozoic eon: the Paleozoic, which means “ancient life,” the
Mesozoic, which means “middle life,” and the Cenozoic, which means “recent life.”
– Each period within an era is characterized by somewhat less profound changes in life forms as
compared with the changes that occur during an era.
– The periods of the Cenozoic era are divided into still smaller units called epochs, during which
even less profound changes in life forms occur.
PRECAMBRIAN TIME
During Precambrian time, there were fewer life forms. These life forms are more difficult to identify and
the rocks have been disturbed often.
DIFFICULTIES WITH THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
– A sedimentary rock may contain particles that contain radioactive isotopes, but these particles are
not the same age as the rock in which they occur.
– The age of a particular mineral in a metamorphic rock does not necessarily represent the time
when the rock was first formed. Instead, the date may indicate when the rock was
metamorphosed.
EARTH’S HISTORY
PRECAMBRIAN TIME
PRECAMBRIAN HISTORY
The Precambrian encompasses immense geological time, from Earth’s distant beginnings 4.56 billion
years ago until the start of the Cambrian period, over 4 billion years later.
PRECAMBRIAN ROCKS
– Shields are large, relatively flat expanses of ancient metamorphic rock within the stable
continental interior.
– Much of what we know about Precambrian rocks comes from ores mined from shields.
EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE EVOLVES
Earth’s original atmosphere was made up of gases similar to those released in volcanic eruptions today—
water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and several trace gases, but no oxygen. Later, primary plants
evolved that used photosynthesis and released oxygen.
Oxygen began to accumulate in the atmosphere about 2.5 billion years ago.
PRECAMBRIAN FOSSILS
– The most common Precambrian fossils are stromatolites.
– Stromatolites are distinctively layered mounds or columns of calcium carbonate. They are not the
remains of actual organisms but are the material deposited by algae.
– Many of these ancient fossils are preserved in chert—a hard dense chemical sedimentary rock.
PALEOZOIC ERA
EARLY PALEOZOIC
Following the long Precambrian, the most recent 540 million years of Earth’s history are divided into
three eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.
EARLY PALEOZOIC HISTORY
During the Cambrian, Ordovician, and Silurian periods, the vast southern continent of Gondwana
encompassed five continents (South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and part of Asia).
EARLY PALEOZOIC LIFE
Life in early Paleozoic time was restricted to the seas
LATE PALEOZOIC HISTORY
Laurasia is the continental mass that formed the northern portion of Pangaea, consisting of present-day
North America and Eurasia.
By the end of the Paleozoic, all the continents had fused into the supercontinent of Pangaea.
LATE PALEOZOIC LIFE
Some 400 million years ago, plants that had adapted to survive at the water’s edge began to move inland,
becoming land plants.
The amphibians rapidly diversified because they had minimal competition from other land dwellers.
THE GREAT PALEOZOIC EXTINCTION
The world’s climate became very seasonal, probably causing the dramatic extinction of many species.
The late Paleozoic extinction was the greatest of at least five mass extinctions to occur over the past 500
million years.
MESOZOIC ERA: Age of Reptiles
Dinosaurs were land-dwelling reptiles that thrived during the Mesozoic era.
MESOZOIC HISTORY
A major event of the Mesozoic era was the breakup of Pangaea.
MESOZOIC LIFE
Gymnosperms are seed-bearing plants that do not depend on free-standing water for fertilization. The
gymnosperms quickly became the dominant plants of the Mesozoic era.
THE SHELLED EGG
Unlike amphibians, reptiles have shell-covered eggs that can be laid on the land.
The elimination of a water-dwelling stage (like the tadpole stage in frogs) was an important evolutionary
step.
REPTILES DOMINATE
With the perfection of the shelled egg, reptiles quickly became the dominant land animals.
At the end of the Mesozoic era, many reptile groups became extinct.
CENOZOIC ERA: Age of Mammals
The Cenozoic era is divided into two periods of very unequal duration, the Tertiary period and the
Quaternary period.
Plate interactions during the Cenozoic era caused many events of mountain building, volcanism, and
earthquakes in the West.
CENOZOIC LIFE
MAMMALS—animals that bear live young and maintain a steady body temperature— replaced reptiles
as the dominant land animals in the Cenozoic era.
ANGIOSPERMS—flowering plants with covered seeds—replaced gymnosperms as the dominant land
plants.
MAMMALS REPLACE REPTILES
Adaptations like being warm blooded, developing insulating body hair, and having more efficient heart
and lungs allow mammals to lead more active lives than reptiles.
LARGE MAMMALS AND EXTINCTION
In North America, the mastodon and mammoth, both huge relatives of the elephant, became extinct. In
addition, saber-toothed cats, giant beavers, large ground sloths, horses, camels, giant bison, and others
died out on the North American continent.
THE OCEAN FLOOR
Nearly 71 percent of Earth’s surface is covered by the global ocean.
Oceanography is a science that draws on the methods and knowledge of geology, chemistry, physics, and
biology to study all aspects of the world ocean.
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS
The world ocean can be divided into four main ocean basins—the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the
Indian Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean.
– The Pacific Ocean is the largest and has the greatest depth.
– The Atlantic Ocean is about half the size of the Pacific and not quite as deep.
– The Indian Ocean, largely a southern hemisphere body, is slightly smaller than the Atlantic.
– Sonar is an acronym for sound navigation and ranging. It is also referred to as echo sounding.
– Satellites are able to measure small differences by bouncing microwaves off the ocean surface.
– Using this new technology, scientists have discovered that the ocean surface is not perfectly flat.
– Differences in the height of the ocean surface are caused by ocean-floor features.
SUBMERSIBLES
– Today, many submersibles are unmanned and operated remotely by computers. These remotely
operated vehicles (ROVs) can remain underwater for long periods.
OCEAN FLOOR FEATURES
The ocean floor regions are the continental margins, the ocean basin floor, and the mid-ocean ridge.
CONTINENTAL MARGINS
A continental margin is the zone of transition between a continent and the adjacent ocean basin floor.
– In the Atlantic Ocean, thick layers of undisturbed sediment cover the continental margin. This
region has very little volcanic or earthquake activity.
– In the Pacific Ocean, oceanic crust plunges beneath continental crust. This force results in a
narrow continental margin that experiences both volcanic activity and earthquakes.
CONTINENTAL SHELF
A continental shelf is the gently sloping submerged surface extending from the shoreline.
– Continental shelves contain important mineral deposits, large reservoirs of oil and natural gas,
and huge sand and gravel deposits.
CONTINENTAL SLOPE
A continental slope is the steep gradient that leads to the deep-ocean floor and marks the seaward edge of
the continental shelf.
– A submarine canyon is the seaward extension of a valley that was cut on the continental shelf
during a time when sea level was lower—a canyon carved into the outer continental shelf, slope,
and rise by turbidity currents.
– A turbidity current is the downslope movement of dense, sediment-laden water created when sand
and mud on the continental shelf and slope are dislodged and thrown into suspension.
CONTINENTAL RISE
A continental rise is the gently sloping surface at the base of the continental slope.
OCEAN BASIN FLOOR
The ocean basin floor is the area of the deep-ocean floor between the continental margin and the oceanic
ridge.
DEEP-OCEAN TRENCHES
Trenches form at the sites of plate convergence where one moving plate descends beneath another and
plunges back into the mantle.
ABYSSAL PLAINS
An abyssal plain is a very level area of the deep-ocean floor, usually lying at the foot of the continental
rise.
– The sediments that make up abyssal plains are carried there by turbidity currents or are deposited
as suspended sediment settles out.
SEAMOUNTS AND GUYOTS
A seamount is an isolated volcanic peak that rises at least 1000 meters above the deep-ocean floor, and a
guyot is an eroded, submerged seamount.
MID-OCEAN RIDGES
A mid-ocean ridge is found near the center of most ocean basins. It is an interconnected system of
underwater mountains that have developed on newly formed ocean crust.
Seafloor Spreading
Seafloor spreading is the process by which plate tectonics produces new oceanic lithosphere at ocean
ridges.
– New ocean floor is formed at mid-ocean ridges as magma rises between the diverging plates and
cools.
Hydrothermal Vents
Hydrothermal vents form along mid-ocean ridges. These are zones where mineral-rich water, heated by
the hot, newly-formed oceanic crust, escapes through cracks in the oceanic crust into surrounding water.
SEAFLOOR SEDIMENTS
TYPES OF SEAFLOOR SEDIMENTS
Ocean-floor sediments can be classified according to their origin into three broad categories: terrigenous
sediment, biogenous sediment, and hydrogenous sediment.
TERRIGENOUS SEDIMENT
Terrigenous sediments consist primarily of mineral grains that were eroded from continental rocks and
transported to the ocean.
BIOGENOUS SEDIMENT
Biogenous sediments consist of shells and skeletons of marine animals and algae.
– Calcareous ooze is thick, common biogenous sediment produced by dissolving calcium carbonate
shells.
– Most oceanic gas hydrates are created when bacteria break down organic matter in ocean floor
sediments.
OTHER RESOURCES
Other major resources from the ocean floor include sand and gravel, evaporative salts, and manganese
nodules.
Sand and Gravel
The offshore sand-and-gravel industry is second in economic value only to the petroleum industry.
Manganese Nodules
Manganese nodules are hard lumps of manganese and other metals (like cobalt, copper, and iron) that
precipitate around a small object.
Evaporative Salts
When seawater evaporates, the salt increases in concentration until it can no longer remain dissolved.
When the concentration becomes high enough, the salts precipitate out of solution and form salt deposits.
The most economically important salt is halite— common table salt.
OCEAN WATER AND OCEAN LIFE
THE COMPOSITION OF SEAWATER
SALINITY
Salinity is the total amount of solid material dissolved in water.
– Chemical weathering of rocks on the continents is one source of elements found in seawater.
– The second major source of elements found in seawater is from Earth’s interior.
– Precipitation
– Sea ice melting
– Icebergs melting
– Evaporation
– The thermocline is the layer of ocean water between about 300 meters and 1000 meters where
there is a rapid change of temperature with depth.
– The thermocline is a very important structure because it creates a barrier to marine life.
OCEAN DENSITY VARIATION
Factors Affecting Seawater Density
Seawater density is influenced by two main factors: salinity and temperature.
Density Variation with Depth
The pycnocline is the layer of ocean water between about 300 meters and 1000 meters where there is a
rapid change of density with depth.
OCEAN LAYERING
Oceanographers generally recognize a three-layered structure in most parts of the open ocean: a shallow
surface mixed zone, a transition zone, and a deep zone.
Surface Zone
– Zone of mixing
– Sun-warmed zone
Transition Zone
– Phytoplankton are algal plankton, which are the most important community of primary producers
in the ocean.
– The photic zone is the upper part of the ocean into which sunlight penetrates.
Distance from Shore
– The intertidal zone is the strip of land where the land and ocean meet and overlap, or the zone
between high and low tides.
– The neritic zone is the marine-life zone that extends from the low-tide line out to the shelf break.
– The oceanic zone is the marine-life zone beyond the continental shelf.
Water Depth
– The pelagic zone is open zone of any depth. Animals in this zone swim or float freely.
– The benthic zone is the marine-life zone that includes any sea-bottom surface regardless of its
distance from shore.
– The abyssal zone is a subdivision of the benthic zone characterized by extremely high pressures,
low temperatures, low oxygen, few nutrients, and no sunlight.
Hydrothermal Vents
– Here seawater seeps into the ocean floor through cracks in the crust.
– At some vents, water temperatures of 100oC or higher support communities of organisms found
nowhere else in the world.
OCEANIC PRODUCTIVITY
PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
Primary productivity is the production of organic compounds from inorganic substances through
photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
Productivity in Polar Oceans
The low availability of solar energy limits photosynthetic productivity in polar areas.
Productivity in Tropical Oceans
Productivity in tropical regions is limited by the lack of nutrients.
Productivity in Temperate Oceans
In temperate regions, which are found at mid-latitudes, a combination of these two limiting factors,
sunlight and nutrient supply, controls productivity.
Winter
– Low productivity
– Productivity is limited
Summer
– Strong thermocline develops so surface nutrients are not replaced from below.
– Surface currents are movements of water that flow horizontally in the upper part of the ocean’s
surface.
– Surface currents develop from friction between the ocean and the wind that blows across its
surface.
Gyres
– Gyres are huge circular-moving current systems that dominate the surfaces of the oceans.
– The Coriolis effect is the deflection of currents away from their original course as a result of
Earth’s rotation.
Ocean Currents and Climate
– When currents from low-latitude regions move into higher latitudes, they transfer heat from
warmer to cooler areas on Earth.
– As cold-water currents travel toward the equator, they help moderate the warm temperatures of
adjacent land areas.
Upwelling
– Upwelling is the rise of cold water from deeper layers to replace warmer surface water.
– Upwelling brings greater concentrations of dissolved nutrients, such as nitrates and phosphates, to
the ocean surface.
DEEP-OCEAN CIRCULATION
Density Currents
– Density currents are vertical currents of ocean water that result from density differences among
water masses.
– Most water involved in deep-ocean currents begins in high latitudes at the surface.
Evaporation
– Density currents can also result from increased salinity of ocean water due to evaporation.
A Conveyor Belt
– In a simplified model, ocean circulation is similar to a conveyor belt that travels from the Atlantic
Ocean, through the Indian and Pacific Oceans, and back again.
WAVES AND TIDES
WAVES
Wave Characteristics
– Most ocean waves obtain their energy and motion from the wind.
– The wave height is the vertical distance between the trough and crest.
– The wavelength is the horizontal distance between two successive crests or two successive
troughs.
– The wave period is the time it takes one full wave—one wavelength—to pass a fixed position.
– Fetch is the distance that the wind has traveled across open water.
– The height, length, and period that are eventually achieved by a wave depend on three factors: (1)
wind speed, (2) length of time the wind has blown, and (3) fetch.
ANATOMY OF A WAVE
Wave Motion
– Circular orbital motion allows energy to move forward through the water while the individual
water particles that transmit the wave move around in a circle.
Breaking Waves
– As the waves touch bottom, wave speed decreases. The decrease in wave speed results in a
decrease in wavelength and an increase in wave height.
TIDES
Tides are daily changes in the elevation of the ocean surface.
Ocean tides result from the gravitational attraction exerted upon Earth by the moon and, to a lesser extent,
by the sun.
Tide-Causing Forces
– Tidal range is the difference in height between successive high and low tides.
– Spring tides are tides that have the greatest tidal range due to the alignment of the Earth–moon–
sun system.
– Neap tides are tides that have the lowest tidal range, occurring near the times of the first-quarter
and third-quarter phases of the moon.
Tidal Patterns
Three main tidal patterns exist worldwide: diurnal tides, semidiurnal tides, and mixed tides.
SHORELINE PROCESSES AND FEATURES
FORCES ACTING ON THE SHORELINE
A beach is the accumulation of sediment found along the shore of a lake or ocean.
Waves along the shoreline are constantly eroding, transporting, and depositing sediment. Many types of
shoreline features can result from this activity.
Wave Impact
– The impact of large, high-energy waves against the shore can be awesome in its violence. Each
breaking wave may hurl thousands of tons of water against the land, sometimes causing the
ground to tremble.
Abrasion
– Abrasion is the sawing and grinding action of rock fragments in the water.
– Abrasion is probably more intense in the surf zone than in any other environment.
Wave Refraction
– Wave refraction is the bending of waves, and it plays an important part in the shoreline process.
– Because of refraction, wave energy is concentrated against the sides and ends of headlands that
project into the water, whereas wave action is weakened in bays.
Longshore Transport
– Turbulence allows longshore currents to easily move fine suspended sand and to roll larger sand
and gravel particles along the bottom.
EROSIONAL FEATURES
Shoreline features that originate primarily from the work of erosion are called erosional features.
Sediment that is transported along the shore and deposited in areas where energy is low produces
depositional features.
Wave-Cut Cliffs and Platforms
– Wave-cut cliffs result from the cutting action of the surf against the base of coastal land. A flat,
bench-like, wave-cut platform forms in front of the wave-cut cliff.
Sea Arches and Sea Stacks
– When two caves on opposite sides of a headland unite, a sea arch results. Eventually, the arch
falls in, leaving an isolated remnant, or sea stack, on the wave-cut platform.
DEPOSITIONAL FEATURES
Spits, Bars, and Tombolos
Where longshore currents and other surf zone currents are active, several features related to the
movement of sediment along the shore may develop.
– A spit is an elongated ridge of sand that projects from the land into the mouth of an adjacent bay.
– A tombolo is a ridge of sand that connects an island to the mainland or to another island.
Barrier Islands
Barrier islands are narrow sandbars parallel to, but separate from, the coast at distances from 3 to 30
kilometers offshore.
STABILIZING THE SHORE
Protective Structures
– Groins, breakwaters, and seawalls are some structures built to protect a coast from erosion or to
prevent the movement of sand along a beach.
Beach Nourishment
– Beach nourishment is the addition of large quantities of sand to the beach system.
THE ATMOSPHERE: Structure and Temperature
ATMOSPHERE CHARACTERISTICS
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Weather is constantly changing, and it refers to the state of the atmosphere at any given time and place.
Climate, however, is based on observations of weather that have been collected over many years. Climate
helps describe a place or region.
Major Components
Air is a mixture of different gases and particles, each with its own physical properties.
Variable Components
Water vapor is the source of all clouds and precipitation. Like carbon dioxide, water vapor absorbs heat
given off by Earth. It also absorbs some solar energy.
Ozone is a form of oxygen that combines three oxygen atoms into each molecule (O 3)
If ozone did not filter most UV radiation and all of the sun’s UV rays reached the surface of Earth, our
planet would be uninhabitable for many living organisms.
Human Influence
Emissions from transportation vehicles account for nearly half the primary pollutants by weight.
Primary Pollutants
– The troposphere is the bottom layer of the atmosphere where temperature decreases with an
increase in altitude.
– The stratosphere is the layer of the atmosphere where temperature remains constant to a height of
about 20 kilometers. It then begins a gradual increase until the stratopause.
– The mesosphere is the layer of the atmosphere immediately above the stratosphere and is
characterized by decreasing temperatures with height.
– The thermosphere is the region of the atmosphere immediately above the mesosphere and is
characterized by increasing temperatures due to the absorption of very short-wave solar energy by
oxygen.
EARTH-SUN RELATIONSHIPS
Earth’s Motions
Earth has two principal motions—rotation and revolution.
Earth’s Orientation
Seasonal changes occur because Earth’s position relative to the sun continually changes as it travels along
its orbit.
Solstices and Equinoxes
– The summer solstice is the solstice that occurs on June 21 or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere and
is the “official” first day of summer.
– The winter solstice is the solstice that occurs on December 21 or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere
and is the “official” first day of winter.
– The autumnal equinox is the equinox that occurs on September 22 or 23 in the Northern
Hemisphere.
– The spring equinox is the equinox that occurs on March 21 or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere.
Length of Daylight
The length of daylight compared to the length of darkness also is determined by Earth’s position in
orbit.
HEATING THE ATMOSPHERE
What Happens to Solar Radiation?
When radiation strikes an object, there usually are three different results.
1. Some energy is absorbed by the object.
2. Substances such as water and air are transparent to certain wavelengths of radiation.
3. Some radiation may bounce off the object without being absorbed or transmitted.
Reflection and Scattering
– Reflection occurs when light bounces off an object. Reflection radiation has the same intensity as
incident radiation.
– Scattering produces a larger number of weaker rays that travel in different directions.
Absorption
– About 50 percent of the solar energy that strikes the top of the atmosphere reaches Earth’s surface
and is absorbed.
– The greenhouse effect is the heating of Earth’s surface and atmosphere from solar radiation being
absorbed and emitted by the atmosphere, mainly by water vapor and carbon dioxide.
TEMPERATURE CONTROLS
WHY TEMPERATURES VARY
Factors other than latitude that exert a strong influence on temperature include heating of land and water,
altitude, geographic position, cloud cover, and ocean currents.
Land and Water
Land heats more rapidly and to higher temperatures than water. Land also cools more rapidly and to
lower temperatures than water.
Geographic Position
The geographic setting can greatly influence temperatures experienced at a specific location.
Altitude
The altitude can greatly influence temperatures experienced at a specific location.
Cloud Cover and Albedo
Albedo is the fraction of total radiation that is reflected by any surface.
– Many clouds have a high albedo and therefore reflect back to space a significant portion of the
sunlight that strikes them.
– Air is saturated when it contains the maximum quantity of water vapor that it can hold at any
given temperature and pressure.
– When saturated, warm air contains more water vapor than cold saturated air.
Relative Humidity
– Relative humidity is a ratio of the air’s actual water-vapor content compared with the amount of
water vapor air can hold at that temperature and pressure.
– When the water-vapor content of air remains constant, lowering air temperature causes an
increase in relative humidity, and raising air temperature causes a decrease in relative humidity.
Dew Point
– Dew point is the temperature to which a parcel of air would need to be cooled to reach saturation.
Measuring Humidity
– A psychrometer is a hygrometer with dry- and wet- bulb thermometers. Evaporation of water
from the wet bulb makes air temperature appear lower than the dry bulb’s measurement. The two
temperatures are compared to determine the relative humidity.
CLOUD FORMATION
AIR COMPRESSION AND EXPANSION
Adiabatic Temperature Changes
When air is allowed to expand, it cools, and when it is compressed, it warms.
Expansion and Cooling
– Dry adiabatic rate is the rate of cooling or heating that applies only to unsaturated air.
– Wet adiabatic rate is the rate of adiabatic temperature change in saturated air.
PROCESSES THAT LIFT AIR
Four mechanisms that can cause air to rise are orographic lifting, frontal wedging, convergence, and
localized convective lifting.
Orographic Lifting
– Orographic lifting occurs when mountains act as barriers to the flow of air, forcing the air to
ascend.
– Air stability is determined by measuring the temperature of the atmosphere at various heights.
– The rate of change of air temperature with height is called the environmental lapse rate.
Degrees of Stability
A temperature inversion occurs in a layer of limited depth in the atmosphere where the temperature
increases rather than decreases with height.
Stability and Daily Weather
When stable air is forced above the Earth’s surface, the clouds that form are widespread and have
little vertical thickness compared to their horizontal dimension.
CONDENSATION
For any form of condensation to occur, the air must be saturated.
Types of Surfaces
Generally, there must be a surface for water vapor to condense on.
Condensation nuclei are tiny bits of particulate matter that serve as surfaces on which water vapor
condenses when condensation occurs in the air.
CLOUD TYPES AND PRECIPITATION
TYPES OF CLOUDS
Clouds are classified on the basis of their form and height.
– Cirrus (cirrus = curl of hair) are clouds that are high, white, and thin.
– Cumulus (cumulus = a pile) are clouds that consist of rounded individual cloud masses.
– Stratus (stratus = a layer) are clouds best described as sheets or layers that cover much or all of
the sky.
High Clouds
– Altocumulus clouds are composed of rounded masses that differ from cirrocumulus clouds in that
altocumulus clouds are larger and denser.
– Altostratus clouds create a uniform white to gray sheet covering the sky with the sun or moon
visible as a bright spot.
Low Clouds
– Stratus clouds are best described as sheets or layers that cover much or all of the sky.
– Stratocumulus clouds have a scalloped bottom that appears as long parallel rolls or broken
rounded patches.
– The Bergeron process is a theory that relates the formation of precipitation to supercooled clouds,
freezing nuclei, and the different saturation levels of ice and liquid water.
– Supercooled water is the condition of water droplets that remain in the liquid state at temperatures
well below 0 °C
– Supersaturated air is the condition of air that is more concentrated than is normally possible under
given temperature and pressure conditions.
Warm Cloud Precipitation
– The collision-coalescence process is a theory of raindrop formation in warm clouds (above 0 °C)
in which large cloud droplets collide and join together with smaller droplets to form a raindrop.
Forms of Precipitation
The type of precipitation that reaches Earth’s surface depends on the temperature profile in the lower few
kilometers of the atmosphere.
Rain and Snow
In meteorology, the term rain means drops of water that fall from a cloud and have a diameter of at
least 0.5 mm.
– At very low temperatures (when the moisture content of air is low) light fluffy snow made up of
individual six-sided ice crystals forms.
– Hailstones begin as small ice pellets that grow by collecting supercooled water droplets as they
fall through a cloud.
AIR PRESSURE AND WIND
AIR PRESSURE
Air pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of air.
– Air pressure is exerted in all directions—down, up, and sideways. The air pressure pushing down
on an object exactly balances the air pressure pushing up on the object.
MEASURING AIR PRESSURE
– When air pressure increases, the mercury in the tube rises. When air pressure decreases, so does
the height of the mercury column.
Factors Affecting Wind
Wind is the result of horizontal differences in air pressure. Air flows from areas of higher pressure to
areas of lower pressure.
– The unequal heating of Earth’s surface generates pressure differences. Solar radiation is the
ultimate energy source for most wind.
– Three factors combine to control wind: pressure differences, the Coriolis effect, and friction.
Pressure Differences
– A pressure gradient is the amount of pressure change occurring over a given distance.
– Closely spaced isobars—lines on a map that connect places of equal air pressure—indicate a
steep pressure gradient and high winds. Widely spaced isobars indicate a weak pressure gradient
and light winds.
Coriolis Effect
– The Coriolis effect describes how Earth’s rotation affects moving objects. In the Northern
Hemisphere, all free-moving objects or fluids, including the wind, are deflected to the right of
their path of motion. In the Southern Hemisphere, they are deflected to the left.
Friction
– Jet streams are fast-moving rivers of air that travel between 120 and 240 kilometers per hour in a
west-to-east direction.
PRESSURE CENTERS AND WINDS
Highs and Lows
– In cyclones, the pressure decreases from the outer isobars toward the center. In anticyclones, just
the opposite is the case—the values of the isobars increase from the outside toward the center.
Cyclonic and Anticyclonic Winds
When the pressure gradient and the Coriolis effect are applied to pressure centers in the Northern
Hemisphere, winds blow counterclockwise around a low. Around a high, they blow clockwise.
In either hemisphere, friction causes a net flow of air inward around a cyclone and a net flow of
air outward around an anticyclone.
Weather and Air Pressure
Rising air is associated with cloud formation and precipitation, whereas sinking air produces clear
skies.
Weather Forecasting
Weather reports emphasize the locations and possible paths of cyclones and anticyclones.
Low-pressure centers can produce bad weather in any season.
Global Winds
The atmosphere balances these differences by acting as a giant heat-transfer system. This system
moves warm air toward high latitudes and cool air toward the equator.
Non-Rotating Earth Model
On a hypothetical non-rotating planet with a smooth surface of either all land or all water, two
large thermally produced cells would form.
Rotating Earth Model
If the effect of rotation were added to the global circulation model, the two-cell convection
system would break down into smaller cells.
– Trade winds are two belts of winds that blow almost constantly from easterly directions and
are located on the north and south sides of the subtropical highs.
– Westerlies are the dominant west-to-east motion of the atmosphere that characterizes the
regions on the poleward side of the subtropical highs.
– Polar easterlies are winds that blow from the polar high toward the subpolar low. These winds
are not constant like the trade winds.
– A polar front is a stormy frontal zone separating cold air masses of polar origin from warm
air masses of tropical origin.
Influence of Continents
The only truly continuous pressure belt is the subpolar low in the Southern Hemisphere. In the
Northern Hemisphere, where land masses break up the ocean surface, large seasonal temperature
differences disrupt the pressure pattern.
Monsoons are the seasonal reversal of wind direction associated with large continents, especially
Asia. In winter, the wind blows from land to sea. In summer, the wind blows from sea to land.
REGIONAL WIND SYSTEMS
LOCAL WINDS
The local winds are caused either by topographic effects or by variations in surface composition (land and
water) in the immediate area.
Land and Sea Breezes
In coastal areas during the warm summer months, the land surface is heated more intensely during the
daylight hours than an adjacent body of water is heated. As a result, the air above the land surface heats,
expands, and rises, creating an area of lower pressure. At night the reverse takes place.
Valley and Mountain Breezes
In mountainous regions during daylight hours, the air along the slopes of the mountains is heated more
intensely than the air at the same elevation over the valley floor. Because this warmer air on the mountain
slopes is less dense, it glides up along the slope and generates a valley breeze. After sunset the pattern
may reverse.
HOW WIND IS MEASURED
Wind Direction
The prevailing wind is the wind that blows more often from one direction than from any
other.
Wind Speed
An anemometer is an instrument that resembles a cup and is commonly used to measure wind speed.
EL NIÑO AND LA NIÑA
El Niño
El Niño is the name given to the periodic warming of the ocean that occurs in the central and eastern
Pacific.
– At irregular intervals of three to seven years, these warm countercurrents become unusually
strong and replace normally cold offshore waters with warm equatorial waters.
– A major El Niño episode can cause extreme weather in many parts of the world.
La Niña
Researchers have come to recognize that when surface temperatures in the eastern Pacific are colder than
average, a La Niña event is triggered that has a distinctive set of weather patterns.
Global Distribution of Precipitation
Global precipitation can be explained if knowledge of global winds and pressure systems are applied.
WEATHER PATTERNS AND SEVERE STORMS
AIR MASSES AND WEATHER
AIR MASSES
An air mass is an immense body of air that is characterized by similar temperatures and amounts of
moisture at any given altitude.
Movement of Air Masses
As it moves, the characteristics of an air mass change and so does the weather in the area over which the
air mass moves.
Classifying Air Masses
In addition to their overall temperature, air masses are classified according to the surface over which they
form.
Continental Polar Air Masses
– Continental polar air masses are uniformly cold and dry in winter and cool and dry in summer.
Maritime Tropical Air Masses
– Maritime tropical air masses are warm, loaded with moisture, and usually unstable.
Maritime Polar Air Masses
– Maritime polar air masses begin as cP air masses in Siberia. The cold, dry continental polar air
changes into relatively mild, humid, unstable maritime polar air during its long journey across the
North Pacific.
– Maritime polar air masses also originate in the North Atlantic off the coast of eastern Canada.
Continental Tropical Air Masses
– Only occasionally do cT air masses affect the weather outside their source regions. However,
when a cT air mass moves from its source region in the summer, it can cause extremely hot,
drought like conditions in the Great Plains.
– Movements of cT air masses in the fall result in mild weather in the Great Lakes region, often
called Indian summer.
FRONTS
FORMATION OF FRONTS
When two air masses meet, they form a front, which is a boundary that separates two air masses.
TYPES OF FRONTS
– Warm Fronts
– A warm front forms when warm air moves into an area formerly covered by cooler air.
– Cold Fronts
– A cold front forms when cold, dense air moves into a region occupied by warmer air.
– Stationary Fronts
– Occasionally, the flow of air on either side of a front is neither toward the cold air mass
nor toward the warm air mass, but almost parallel to the line of the front. In such cases,
the surface position of the front does not move, and a stationary front forms.
– Occluded Fronts
– When an active cold front overtakes a warm front, an occluded front forms.
Middle-Latitude Cyclones
Middle-latitude cyclones are large centers of low pressure that generally travel from west to east and
cause stormy weather.
The Role of Airflow Aloft
More often than not, air high up in the atmosphere fuels a middle-latitude cyclone.
SEVERE STORMS
THUNDERSTORMS
– A thunderstorm is a storm that generates lightning and thunder. Thunderstorms frequently
produce gusty winds, heavy rain, and hail.
Occurrence of Thunderstorms
– At any given time, there are an estimated 2000 thunderstorms in progress on Earth. The greatest
number occur in the tropics where warmth, plentiful moisture, and instability are common
atmospheric conditions.
Development of Thunderstorms
– Tornadoes are violent windstorms that take the form of a rotation column of air called a vortex.
The vortex extends downward from a cumulonimbus cloud.
Occurrence and Development of Tornadoes
– A mesocyclone is a vertical cylinder of rotating air that develops in the updraft of a thunderstorm.
Tornado Intensity
– Because tornado winds cannot be measured directly, a rating on the Fujita scale is determined by
assessing the worst damage produced by the storm.
Tornado Safety
– Tornado watches alert people to the possibility of tornadoes in a specified area for a particular
time.
– A tornado warning is issued when a tornado has actually been sighted in an area or is indicated by
weather radar.
TROPICAL CYCLONES
– Whirling tropical cyclones produce winds of at least 119 kilometers per hour are known in the
Western Pacific Area as typhoons, in the Indian Ocean as Cyclones and in the United States as
hurricanes.
Occurrence of Tropical Cyclones
– Most tropical cyclones form between about 5 and 20 degrees north and south latitude. The North
Pacific has the greatest number of storms, averaging 20 per year.
Development of Tropical Cyclones
– Tropical cyclones develop most often in the late summer when water temperatures are warm
enough to provide the necessary heat and moisture to the air.
– The eye is a zone of scattered clouds and calm averaging about 20 kilometers in diameter at the
center of a tropical cyclone.
– The eye wall is a doughnut-shaped area of intense cumulonimbus development and very strong
winds that surrounds the eye of a tropical cyclone.
CLIMATE
EARTH’S MAJOR CLIMATE ZONES
– The tropical zone is between 23.5° north (the tropic of Cancer) and 23.5° south (the tropic of
Capricorn) of the equator. The sun’s rays are most intense and the temperatures are always warm.
– The temperate zones are between 23.5° and 66.5° north and between 23.5° and 66.5° south of the
equator. The sun’s rays strike Earth at a smaller angle than near the equator.
– Polar zones are between 66.5° north and south latitudes and the poles. The sun’s rays strike Earth
at a very small angle in the polar zones.
ELEVATION
– Topographic features such as mountains play an important role in the amount of precipitation that
falls over an area.
WATER BODIES
– Large bodies of water such as lakes and oceans have an important effect on the temperature of an
area because the temperature of the water body influences the temperature of the air above it.
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
– Global winds are another factor that influences climate because they distribute heat and moisture
around Earth.
VEGETATION
– Vegetation can affect both temperature and the precipitation patterns in an area.
WORLD CLIMATES
The Köppen Climate Classification System
The Köppen climate classification system uses mean monthly and annual values of temperature and
precipitation to classify climates.
HUMID TROPICAL CLIMATES
– Humid tropical climates are without winters. Every month in such a climate has a mean
temperature above 18 °C. The amount of precipitation can exceed 200 cm per year.
Wet Tropical
– Wet tropical climates have high temperatures and much annual precipitation.
Tropical Wet and Dry
– Tropical wet and dry climates are climates that transition between the wet tropics and the
subtropical steppes.
HUMID MID-LATITUDE CLIMATES
– Climates with mild winters have an average temperature in the coldest month that is below 18 °C
but above -3 °C. Climates with severe winters have an average temperature in the coldest month
that is below -3 °C.
Humid Mid-Latitude with Mild Winters
– A humid subtropical climate is generally located on the eastern side of a continent and is
characterized by hot, sultry summers and cool winters.
– A marine west coast climate is found on windward coasts from latitudes 40° to 65° and is
dominated by maritime air masses. Winters are mild, and summers are cool.
– A dry-summer subtropical climate is a climate located on the west sides of continents between
30° and 45° latitude. It is the only humid climate with a strong winter precipitation maximum.
Humid Mid-Latitude With Severe Winters
– A subarctic climate is found north of the humid continental climate and south of the polar
climate; it is characterized by bitterly cold winters and short, cool summers. Places within this
climate realm experience the highest annual temperature ranges on Earth.
DRY CLIMATES
– A dry climate is one in which the yearly precipitation is not as great as the potential loss of water
by evaporation.
POLAR CLIMATES
– Polar climates are those in which the mean temperature of the warmest month is below 10 °C.
HIGHLAND CLIMATES
– In general, highland climates are cooler and wetter than nearby areas at lower elevations.
CLIMATE CHANGES
NATURAL PROCESSES THAT CHANGE CLIMATES
Volcanic Eruptions
– The presence of volcanic aerosols (ash, dust, and sulfur-based aerosols) in the air increases the
amount of solar radiation that is reflected back into space. This causes Earth’s lower atmosphere
to cool.
Ocean Circulation
– When the sun is most active, it contains dark blemishes called sunspots. The formation of
sunspots appears to correspond with warm periods in Europe and North America.
Earth Motions
– Geographic changes in Earth’s land and water bodies cause changes in climate.
– Changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit and the tilt of Earth on its axis are other Earth motions that
affect global climates.
HUMAN IMPACT ON CLIMATE CHANGES
The Greenhouse Effect
– The greenhouse effect is a natural warming of both Earth’s lower atmosphere and Earth’s surface
from solar radiation being absorbed and emitted by the atmosphere.
Global Warming
– As a result of increased levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, global temperatures
have increased. This increase is called global warming.
ORIGIN OF MODERN ASTRONOMY
EARLY ASTRONOMY
ANCIENT GREEKS
– Astronomy is the science that studies the universe. It includes the observation and interpretation
of celestial bodies and phenomena.
– In the ancient Greeks’ geocentric model, the moon, sun, and the known planets—Mercury, Venus,
Mars, and Jupiter—orbit Earth.
Heliocentric Model (Copernicus)
– In the heliocentric model, Earth and the other planets orbit the sun.
Ptolemaic System
– Ptolemy created a model of the universe that accounted for the movement of the planets.
– Retrograde motion is the apparent westward motion of the planets with respect to the stars.
THE BIRTH OF MODERN ASTRONOMY
Nicolaus Copernicus
– Copernicus concluded that Earth is a planet. He proposed a model of the solar system with the
sun at the center.
Tycho Brahe
– Tycho Brahe designed and built instruments to measure the locations of the heavenly bodies.
Brahe’s observations, especially of Mars, were far more precise than any made previously.
Johannes Kepler
Kepler discovered three laws of planetary motion:
1. Orbits of the planets are elliptical.
2. Planets revolve around the sun at varying speed.
3. There is a proportional relationship between a planet’s orbital period and its distance to the sun.
– An astronomical unit (AU) is the average distance between Earth and the sun; it is about 150
million kilometers.
Galileo Galilei
– Galileo’s most important contributions were his descriptions of the behavior of moving objects.
He developed his own telescope and made important discoveries:
– Mean solar day is the time interval from one noon to the next, about 24 hours.
– Sidereal day is the time it takes for Earth to make one complete rotation (360º) with
respect to a star other than the sun—23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds.
Revolution
– Revolution is the motion of a body, such as a planet or moon, along a path around some point in
space.
– Aphelion is the time in July when Earth is farthest from the sun.
Earth’s Axis and Seasons
– The plane of the ecliptic is an imaginary plane that connects Earth’s orbit with the celestial
sphere.
– Because of the inclination of Earth’s axis to the plane of the ecliptic, Earth has its yearly cycle of
seasons.
Precession
– Earth is presently approaching one of its nearest galactic neighbors, the Great Galaxy in
Andromeda.
MOTIONS OF THE EARTH–MOON SYSTEM
– The phases of the moon are the progression of changes in the moon’s appearance during the
month.
– Lunar phases are a result of the motion of the moon and the sunlight that is reflected from its
surface.
Lunar Motions
– The synodic month is based on the cycle of the moon’s phases. It lasts 29 1/2 days.
– The sidereal month is the true period of the moon’s revolution around Earth. It lasts 27 1/3 days.
– The difference of two days between the synodic and sidereal cycles is due to the Earth–moon
system also moving in an orbit around the sun.
– The moon’s period of rotation about its axis and its revolution around Earth are the same, 27 1/3
days. It causes the same lunar hemisphere to always face Earth.
ECLIPSES
– Solar eclipses occur when the moon moves in a line directly between Earth and the sun, casting a
shadow on Earth.
– Lunar eclipses occur when the moon passes through Earth’s shadow.
– During a new-moon or full-moon phase, the moon’s orbit must cross the plane of the ecliptic for
an eclipse to take place.
Solar Eclipse
Lunar Eclipse
EARTH’S MOON
THE LUNAR SURFACE
Craters
– Most of the lunar surface is made up of densely pitted, light-colored areas known as highlands.
Maria
– Maria, ancient beds of basaltic lava, originated when asteroids punctured the lunar surface, letting
magma bleed out.
– A rille is a long channel associated with lunar maria. A rille looks similar to a valley or a trench.
Regolith
– The lunar regolith is a thin, gray layer on the surface of the moon, consisting of loosely
compacted, fragmented material believed to have been formed by repeated impacts of meteorites.
LUNAR HISTORY
The most widely accepted model for the origin of the moon is that when the solar system was
forming, a body the size of Mars impacted Earth. The resulting debris was ejected into space, began
orbiting around Earth, and eventually united to form the moon.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
THE PLANETS: An Overview
– The terrestrial planets are planets that are small and rocky—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
– The Jovian planets are the huge gas giants—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
– Size is the most obvious difference between the terrestrial and Jovian planets.
– Density, chemical makeup, and rate of rotation are other ways in which the two groups of planets
differ.
Criteria for being a planet
– It should have sufficient mass for it self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes
a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round shape).
– The substances that make up the planets are divided into three groups: gases, rocks, and ices.
The Atmosphere of the Planets
– The Jovian planets have very thick atmospheres of hydrogen, helium, methane, and ammonia.
– By contrast, the terrestrial planets, including Earth, have meager atmospheres at best.
FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Nebular Theory
– According to the nebular theory, the sun and planets formed from a rotating disk of dust and
gases.
Planetesimals
– higher density
– solid surface
– Mercury has cratered highlands, much like the moon, and vast smooth terrains that resemble
maria.
Surface Temperatures
– Mercury can reach a high of 800 degrees and a low of about 300 degrees Fahrenheit
VENUS: The Hottest Planet
Venus is similar to Earth in size, density, mass, and location in the solar system. Thus, it has been
referred to as “Earth’s twin.”
– It takes longer to rotate once around its axis than to revolve once around the sun
– The atmosphere completely hides the surface and traps the heat.
– Has no water.
– Only rocks can handle the high temperature and crushing pressure
– The surface temperature of Venus reaches 475 °C, and its atmosphere is 97 percent carbon
dioxide.
Surface Features
– Earth is the only planet in the universe which is known to support life.
– Earth is the only planet in the Solar System known to be geologically active.
– The largest volcano in the Solar System is on Mars, called Olympus Mons.
– This is caused by the tilt of the planet's axis, at a similar angle to the tilt of Earth's axis
– Rocks from Mars have landed on Earth from meteorite impacts blasting debris through space.
– Although the atmosphere of Mars is very thin, extensive dust storms occur and may cause the
color changes observed from Earth.
Surface Features
– Most Martian surface features are old by Earth standards. The highly cratered southern
hemisphere is probably 3.5 billion to 4.5 billion years old.
Water on Mars
– Some areas of Mars exhibit drainage patterns similar to those created by streams on Earth.
– Images from the Mars Global Surveyor indicate that groundwater has recently migrated to the
surface.
THE OUTER (JOVIAN) PLANETS
– lower density
– no solid surface
– Jupiter's has a famous structure --Red Spot is a great storm that has raged for at least four hundred
years.
– If we were able to stand on the surface of Jupiter, we would weigh three times as much as we
would on Earth.
– Jupiter has a mass that is 2 1/2 times greater than the mass of all the other planets and moons
combined.
Structure of Jupiter
– Jupiter’s hydrogen-helium atmosphere also contains small amounts of methane, ammonia, water,
and sulfur compounds.
Jupiter’s Moons
– Jupiter has four large Galilean moons, twelve smaller named moons and twenty-three more
recently discovered but not named moons. The four large Galilean moons were first observed by
Galileo in 1610.
IO
– Europa is one of the five known moons in the solar system to have an atmosphere.
GANYMEDE
CALLISTO
– has the oldest, most cratered surface of anybody yet observed in the solar system.
Jupiter’s Rings
– Jupiter’s ring system was one of the most unexpected discoveries made by Voyager 1.
SATURN: The Elegant Planet
– Saturn’s atmosphere is very active, with winds roaring at up to 1500 kilometers per hour.
– Large cyclonic “storms” similar to Jupiter’s Great Red Spot, although smaller, occur in Saturn’s
atmosphere.
Saturn’s Rings
– Until the discovery that Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune have ring systems, this phenomenon was
thought to be unique to Saturn.
– Most rings fall into one of two categories based on particle density.
– Saturn’s rings are not solid; they are composed of small countless particles.
– Saturn's rings are believed to be the particles of an old moon orbiting the planet, smashed apart in
a collision about 50 million years ago.
– Instead of being generally perpendicular to the plane of its orbit like the other planets, Uranus’s
axis of rotation lies nearly parallel with the plane of its orbit.
– It takes just over 84 years on Earth for Uranus to orbit the Sun.
– Uranus is the only planet in our solar system to rotate on its side.
– If we were able to see Uranus' moons orbiting the planet, they would go over and under the planet
like lights on a Ferris wheel.
– It is caused by the methane in its atmosphere which filters out red light.
– Uranus is the third largest planet in the solar system
NEPTUNE: The Windy Planet
– Winds exceeding 1000 kilometers per hour encircle Neptune, making it one of the windiest places
in the solar system.
– Neptune sometimes orbits the Sun further away than Pluto making it the most distant planet in the
Solar System (1979-1999).
– Since its discovery in 1846, Neptune has not yet completed a full orbit. In fact, it takes 165 years
for the planet to go around the Sun.
– Neptune has the strongest winds in the Solar System, and a dark spot, similar to Jupiter's Great
Red Spot
– An asteroid is a small, rocky body whose diameter can range from a few hundred kilometers to
less than a kilometer.
– Most asteroids lie between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter in the asteroid belt. They have orbital
periods of three to six years.
CERES
– By far, the largest and most massive body in the asteroid belt.
– Comets are small bodies made of rocky and metallic pieces held together by frozen gases.
Comets generally revolve about the sun in elongated orbits.
– The most famous short-period comet is Halley’s comet. Its orbital period is 76 years.
Oort Cloud
– Comets with long orbital periods appear to be distributed in all directions from the sun, forming
a spherical shell around the solar system called the Oort cloud.
DWARF PLANETS
A celestial body that:
– Has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a
hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape.
– Like the asteroids in the inner solar system, most Kuiper belt comets move in nearly circular
orbits that lie roughly in the same plane as the planets.
– begins near the orbit of Neptune and continues beyond Pluto. This is also a region where most
comets are found.
KNOWN DWARF PLANETS IN THE KUIPER BELT
1. Eris – the largest known dwarf planet in the Solar System. Eris is the most distant member of our
solar system known at this time. It is 3 times farther out than Pluto. One trip around the Sun takes
557 Earth years for Eris.
2. Pluto – The second largest dwarf planet. Its orbit is highly inclined to the ecliptic and highly
eccentric. Named after the God of the Underworld. The name was proposed by Venetia Burney,
an eleven-year-old girl from England. The name was chosen from suggestions all over the world.
Pluto has three known moons:
a. Charon – the largest moon of Pluto
b. Nix
c. Hydra
3. Makemake – Initially known as 2005 FY9 and later given the minor planet number 136472.
Discovered on March 31, 2005 by Mike Brown.
4. Haumea - 2003 EL61
Named after Hawaiian Goddess of Childbirth. Discovered on Dec. 28, 2004 by Mike Brown
METEOROIDS
– A meteor is the luminous phenomenon observed when a meteoroid enters Earth’s atmosphere and
burns up, popularly called a shooting star.
– The most important lens in a refracting telescope, the objective lens, produces an image by
bending light from a distant object so that the light converges at an area called the focus (focus =
central point).
Chromatic Aberration
– A chromatic aberration is the property of a lens whereby light of different colors is focused at
different places.
REFLECTING TELESCOPES
A reflecting telescope is a telescope that reflects light off a concave mirror, focusing the image in
front of the mirror.
Advantages of Reflecting Telescopes
– Most large optical telescopes are reflectors. Light does not pass through a mirror, so the glass for
a reflecting telescope does not have to be of optical quality.
Properties of Optical Telescopes
– Both refracting and reflecting telescopes have three properties that aid astronomers in their work:
1. Light-gathering power
2. Resolving power
3. Magnifying power
RADIO TELESCOPES
A radio telescope is a telescope designed to make observations in radio wavelengths.
– A radio telescope focuses the incoming radio waves on an antenna, which, just like a radio
antenna, absorbs and transmits these waves to an amplifier.
Advantages of Radio Telescopes
– Radio telescopes are much less affected by turbulence in the atmosphere, clouds, and the weather.
– Radio telescopes can “see” through interstellar dust clouds that obscure visible wavelengths.
SPACE TELESCOPES
– Space telescopes orbit above Earth’s atmosphere and thus produce clearer images than Earth-
based telescopes.
Hubble Space Telescope
– The first space telescope, built by NASA, was the Hubble Space Telescope. Hubble was put
into orbit around Earth in April 1990.
Other Space Telescopes
– To study X-rays, NASA uses the Chandra X-Ray Observatory. This space telescope was
launched in 1999.
– Another space telescope, the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory, was used to study both
visible light and gamma rays.
– In 2011, NASA plans to launch the James Webb Space Telescope to study infrared radiation.
STRUCTURE OF THE SUN
Because the sun is made of gas, no sharp boundaries exist between its various layers. Keeping this in
mind, we can divide the sun into four parts: the solar interior; the visible surface, or photosphere; and two
atmospheric layers, the chromosphere and corona.
PHOTOSPHERE
– The photosphere is the region of the sun that radiates energy to space, or the visible surface of the
sun.
– It exhibits a grainy texture made up of many small, bright markings, called granules, produced by
convection.
– The chromosphere is the first layer of the solar atmosphere found directly above the photosphere.
– It is a relatively thin, hot layer of incandescent gases a few thousand kilometers thick.
– Its top contains numerous spicules, which are narrow jets of rising material.
CORONA
– Solar wind is a stream of protons and electrons ejected at high speed from the solar corona.
SUNSPOTS
– A sunspot is a dark spot on the sun that is cool in contrast to the surrounding photosphere.
– Sunspots appear dark because of their temperature, which is about 1500 K less than that of the
surrounding solar surface.
PROMINENCES
– Prominences are ionized gases trapped by magnetic fields that extend from regions of intense
solar activity.
SOLAR FLARES
– Solar flares are brief outbursts that normally last about an hour and appear as a sudden
brightening of the region above a sunspot cluster.
– During their existence, solar flares release enormous amounts of energy, much of it in the form of
ultraviolet, radio, and X-ray radiation.
– Auroras, the result of solar flares, are bright displays of ever-changing light caused by solar
radiation interacting with the upper atmosphere in the region of the poles.
THE SOLAR INTERIOR
Nuclear Fusion
– Nuclear fusion is the way that the sun produces energy. This reaction converts four hydrogen
nuclei into the nucleus of a helium atom, releasing a tremendous amount of energy.
– During nuclear fusion, energy is released because some matter is actually converted to energy.
– It is thought that a star the size of the sun can exist in its present stable state for 10 billion years.
As the sun is already 4.5 billion years old, it is “middle-aged.”
BEYOND OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
PROPERTIES OF STARS
CHARACTERISTICS OF STARS
– A constellation is an apparent group of stars originally named for mythical characters. The sky
contains 88 constellations.
Star Color and Temperature
– A binary star is one of two stars revolving around a common center of mass under their mutual
gravitational attraction.
– Binary stars are used to determine the star property most difficult to calculate—its mass.
MEASURING DISTANCES TO STARS
Parallax
– Parallax is the slight shifting of the apparent position of a star due to the orbital motion of Earth.
– The nearest stars have the largest parallax angles, while those of distant stars are too small to
measure.
Light-Year
– A light-year is the distance light travels in a year, about 9.5 trillion kilometers.
STELLAR BRIGHTNESS
Apparent Magnitude
– Three factors control the apparent brightness of a star as seen from Earth: how big it is, how hot it
is, and how far away it is.
Absolute Magnitude
– Absolute magnitude is the apparent brightness of a star if it were viewed from a distance of 32.6
light-years.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF STARS
– A Cepheid variable is a star whose brightness varies periodically because it expands and
contracts; it is a type of pulsating star.
– A protostar is a collapsing cloud of gas and dust destined to become a star—a developing star not
yet hot enough to engage in nuclear fusion.
– When the core of a protostar has reached about 10 million K, pressure within is so great that
nuclear fusion of hydrogen begins, and a star is born.
Main-Sequence Stage
– Massive stars use fuel faster and exist for only a few million years.
– Small stars use fuel slowly and exist for perhaps hundreds of billions of years.
– The core collapses as helium is converted to carbon. Eventually all nuclear fuel is used and
gravity squeezes the star.
BURNOUT AND DEATH
– All stars, regardless of their size, eventually run out of fuel and collapse due to gravity.
Death of Low-Mass Stars
– Stars less than one-half the mass of the sun never evolve to the red giant stage but remain in the
stable main-sequence stage until they consume all their hydrogen fuel and collapse into a white
dwarf.
Death of Medium-Mass Stars
– Stars with masses similar to the sun evolve in essentially the same way as low-mass stars.
– During their collapse from red giants to white dwarfs, medium-mass stars are thought to cast off
their bloated outer layer, creating an expanding round cloud of gas called planetary nebula.
Death of Massive Stars
– In contrast to sunlike stars, stars that are over three times the sun’s mass have relatively short life
spans, which end in a supernova event.
– A supernova is an exploding massive star that increases in brightness many thousands of times.
– The massive star’s interior condenses and may produce a hot, dense object that is either a neutron
star or a black hole.
STELLAR REMNANTS
White Dwarfs
– A white dwarf is a star that has exhausted most or all of its nuclear fuel and has collapsed to a
very small size, believed to be near its final stage of evolution.
– The sun begins as a nebula, spends much of its life as a main-sequence star, and then becomes a
red giant, a planetary nebula, a white dwarf, and, finally, a black dwarf.
Neutron Stars
– A pulsar is a source that radiates short bursts or pulses of radio energy in very regular periods.
– A pulsar found in the Crab Nebula during the 1970s is undoubtedly the remains of the supernova
of 1054.
Black Holes
– A black hole is a massive star that has collapsed to such a small volume that its gravity prevents
the escape of everything, including light.
– Scientists think that as matter is pulled into a black hole, it should become very hot and emit a
flood of X-rays before being pulled in.
THE UNIVERSE
The Milky Way Galaxy
– The Milky Way is a large spiral galaxy whose disk is about 100,000 light-years wide and about
10,000 light-years thick at the nucleus.
Structure of the Milky Way
– Radio telescopes reveal that the Milky Way has at least three distinct spiral arms, with some
splintering.
TYPES OF GALAXIES
Spiral Galaxies
– They have large diameters of 20,000 to 125,000 light-years and contain both young and old stars.
Elliptical Galaxies
– Only 10 percent of the known galaxies have irregular shapes and are classified as irregular
galaxies.
– In addition to shape and size, one of the major differences among different types of galaxies is the
age of their stars. Irregular galaxies contain young stars.
Galaxy Clusters
– Red shift, or a Doppler shift toward the red end of the spectrum, occurs because the light waves
are “stretched,” which shows that Earth and the source are moving away from each other.
Hubble’s Law
– Hubble’s law is a law that states that the galaxies are retreating from the Milky Way at a speed
that is proportional to their distance.
– The red shifts of distant galaxies indicate that the universe is expanding.
– To help visualize the nature of the universe, imagine a loaf of raisin bread dough that has been set
out to rise for a few hours. As the dough doubles in size, so does the distance between all the
raisins. Those objects located father apart move away from each other more rapidly.
THE BIG BANG
The big bang theory states that at one time, the entire universe was confined to a dense, hot,
supermassive ball. Then, about 13.7 billion years ago, a violent explosion occurred, hurling this
material in all directions.
Supporting Evidence
– The red shift of galaxies supports the big bang and the expanding universe theories.
– Scientists discovered a type of energy called cosmic background radiation. Scientists think that
this radiation was produced during the big bang.
THE BIG CRUNCH?
The future of the universe follows two possible paths:
1. The universe will expand forever.
2. The outward expansion will stop and gravitational contraction will follow.
– The view currently favored by most scientists is an expanding universe with no ending point.
– It should be noted, however, that the methods used to determine the ultimate fate of the universe
have substantial uncertainties.
CHEMISTRY
Science that describes matter – its properties, the changes it undergoes, and the energy
changes that accompany those processes
MATTER
SOLIDS
- higher KE - particles can move around but are still close together
- indefinite shape
- definite volume
GASES
PLASMA
- very high KE - particles collide with enough energy to break into charged
particles (+/-)
BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE
FERMIONIC CONDENSATE
- consist of normal fermions (which are the building blocks of normal matter)
which are almost identical to bosons they cannot stick together
Thermal Expansion
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
- properties that can be measured or observed without changing the chemical
nature of the substance
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
- properties that are only observable when the substance reacts with another
substance thereby causing a change in the chemical composition of the
substance
CHANGES OF MATTER
PHYSICAL CHANGE
- changes in the physical properties of matter and takes place without changing
the chemical composition
Phase Changes
- one in which substances goes from one phase to another, solid, liquid or gas, by
the addition or removal of heat.
CHEMICAL CHANGE
Nuclear change
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear Fusion
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Scientists like to classify things. One way that scientists classify matter is by its composition.
Ultimately, all matter can be classified as mixtures or pure substances.
PURE SUBSTANCES
- homogenous
Element
Metals
- Metals are lustrous (shiny), malleable, ductile, and are good conductors of heat
and electricity
Non-Metals
- Bromine is a liquid
Metalloids
- 20 are essential for the well-being and survival of the human body.
- most of our hydrogen and oxygen is found as water, which makes up 55 to 60%
of our body mass.
Compound
Acids
Properties
sour taste
corrosive
electrolytes
Bases
Properties
bitter taste
corrosive
electrolytes
slippery feel
Salts
Neutralization Reaction
HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE
- Solutions
HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURE
Colloid
- medium-sized particles
Suspension
- large particles
SEPARATING MIXTURES
- Filtration
- Sedimentation
- Decantation
- Centrifugation
- Evaporation
- Use of Magnets
COMPOSITION OF MATTER: Atomic and Molecular
– Greek: atomos
– British Schoolteacher
2. Atoms of the same element are identical. Atoms of different elements are different.
– Discovered radioactivity
Three types:
J. J. Thomson (1903)
– Discovered Electrons
– Plum-pudding Model
– Nuclear Model
– Bright-Line Spectrum
– Energy Levels
– Planetary Model
– Quantum mechanics
– Joliot-Curie Experiments
– Neutron Model
THE ATOM
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of that
element.
An atom consists of
- a nucleus, located in the center of the atom, that contains protons and neutrons
and represents most of the mass of an atom.
In an atom, the protons and neutrons that make up almost all the mass are packed into
the tiny volume of the nucleus. The rapidly moving electrons (negative charge) surround
the nucleus and account for the large volume of the atom.
- chemists use a very small unit of mass called the atomic mass unit (amu).
- 1 amu has a mass equal to 1/12 of the mass of the carbon-12 atom that
contains six protons and six neutrons.
- electrons have such a small mass that they are not included in the mass of an
atom.
ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER
All atoms of an element have the same number of protons and the same atomic number.
ATOMIC NUMBER
Ions
MASS NUMBER
ISOTOPES
ATOMIC MASS
PERIODIC LAW
When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, there is a periodic
pattern in their physical and chemical properties.
- periods are horizontal rows of elements, counted from top to bottom of the table
as Periods 1−7.
Group Numbers
An alternative system uses numbers of 1–18 for all of the groups, from left to right,
across the periodic table.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Group Names
- Valence electrons are the number of electrons in the outermost energy level.
- The group number gives the number of valence electrons for the representative
elements.
Lewis Symbols
Lewis symbols represent the valence electrons as dots placed on sides of the symbol for
an element.
- Five to eight valence electrons are arranged with at least one pair of electrons
around the symbol for the element.
Atomic Size
- is determined by the atom’s atomic radius, the distance between the nucleus and
the outermost electrons.
- increases for representative elements from top to bottom of the periodic table.
For representative elements, the atomic size increases going down a group but
decreases going from left to right across a period.
Ionization Energy
Ionization energy is the energy required to remove one of the outermost electrons.
- As the distance from the nucleus to the valence electrons increases, the
ionization energy decreases.
- The ionization energy is low for metals and high for the nonmetals.
Ionization energy decreases down a group and increases going across a period from left
to right.
Metallic Character
An element with metallic character is one that loses valence electrons easily.
- is less for nonmetals on the right side of the periodic table that do not lose
electrons easily.
- decreases going down a group, as electrons are farther away from the nucleus.
The metallic character of the representative elements increases going down a group and
decreases going from left to right across a period.
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
ATOMIC SPECTRUM
When light from a heated element passes through a prism, it separates into distinct lines
of color separated by dark areas called an atomic spectrum.
Each element has its own unique atomic spectrum.
In an atomic spectrum, light from a heated element separates into distinct lines.
The lines in an atomic spectrum are associated with the changes in energies of the
electrons.
In an atom, each electron has a specific energy, known as its energy level, which
- increases in energy as the value of n increases and electrons are farther away
from the nucleus.
The energy of an electron is quantized—electrons can have only specific energy values.
- Electrons with the same energy are grouped in the same energy level.
- Energy levels are assigned values called principal quantum numbers (n), (n = 1,
n = 2, …).
An electron can have only the energy of one of the energy levels in an atom.
CHANGES IN ELECTRON ENERGY LEVEL
- The energy emitted or absorbed is equal to the differences between the two
energy levels.
SUBLEVELS
It is the arrangement of electrons that determines the physical and chemical properties
of an element.
s Orbitals
p Orbitals
- The three p orbitals are arranged perpendicular to each other along the x, y, and
z axes around the nucleus.
A p orbital has two regions of high probability, which gives a “dumbbell” shape.
(a) Each p orbital is aligned along a different axis from the other p orbitals.
d Orbitals
- Four of the five d orbitals consist of four lobes that are aligned along or between
different axes.
- One d orbital consists of two lobes and a doughnut-shaped ring around its
center.
- electrons in the same orbital must have their magnetic spins cancel (they must
spin in opposite directions).
- Each s sublevel has one orbital and can hold a maximum of two electrons.
- Each p sublevel has three orbitals and can hold a maximum of six electrons.
- Each d sublevel has five orbitals and can hold a maximum of 10 electrons.
- Each f sublevel can have 7 orbitals and can hold a maximum of 14 electrons.
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
Orbital Diagrams
- fill the orbitals and energy levels from lowest to highest energy level.
- fill orbitals within the same sublevel one at a time, before pairing the electrons.
Electron Configurations
- show how electrons fill energy levels and sublevels in order of increasing energy.
- write an abbreviated form using a noble gas to represent all electrons preceding
it.
Electron configurations follow the order of occupied sublevels on the periodic table. The
electron configurations of elements are related to their positions on the periodic table.
Different sections or blocks correspond to sublevels s, p, d, and f.
1. The s block contains elements in Groups 1A (1) and 2A (2). This means the final one
or two electrons are in the s sublevel.
2. The p block consists of elements in Group 3A (13) to Group 8A (18). There are six p
block elements in each period, because three p orbitals can hold a maximum of six
electrons.
3. The d block, which contains transition elements, first appears after calcium (atomic
number 20). There are 10 elements in the d block, because five d orbitals can hold a
maximum of 10 electrons.
4. The f block, the inner transition elements, is the two rows of elements at the bottom
of the periodic table. There are 14 elements in each f block, because seven f orbitals
can hold a maximum of 14 electrons.
Steps:
1. Locate the element on the periodic table.
3. Complete the configuration by counting the electrons in the last occupied sublevel
block.
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY
– defined as nuclei in which the nuclear forces cannot offset the repulsions between the
protons.
– radioactive, emitting small particles of energy called radiation to become more stable.
Radiation may take the form of alpha (α) and beta (β) particles, positrons (β+), or pure
energy such as gamma (γ) rays.
RADIOISOTOPE
A radioisotope
TYPES OF RADIATION
– positrons (β+), e
0
+1
– knocks away the electrons in molecules, forming unstable ions such as H 2O+
– damages the cells most sensitive to radiation, rapidly dividing cells in bone marrow, skin,
and reproductive organs, thus causing cancer.
Radiation Protection
For those working in an environment where radioactive materials are present, limit exposure
by
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
In the nuclear equation for alpha decay, the mass number of the new nucleus decreases by
4 and its atomic number decreases by 2.
In a process called radioactive decay, the nucleus breaks down by emitting radiation.
The process is represented by a nuclear in which
- the sum of the mass numbers and the sum of the atomic numbers are equal for
the reactants and the products:
Alpha decay occurs when a radioactive nucleus emits an alpha particle, forming a new
nucleus with a mass number that is decreased by 4 and an atomic number that is
decreased by 2.
BETA DECAY
0
-1e
In the nuclear equation for beta decay, a beta particle, an electron, is emitted from the
nucleus when a neutron in the nucleus breaks down, forming a proton and a beta
particle and increasing the atomic number by 1.
POSITRON EMISSION
0
+1e
In positron emission,
- a proton is converted to a neutron and a positron.
1
1 p � 01n + +10e
- the mass number of the new nucleus is the same, but the atomic number
decreases by 1.
GAMMA RADIATION 0 g
0
In gamma radiation,
- the mass number and the atomic number of the new nucleus are the same.
Steps:
When the nuclei of alpha, beta, positron, and gamma emitters emit radiation, new and
more stable nuclei are produced.
RADIATION MEASUREMENT
GEIGER COUNTER
- alpha particles, which do not penetrate the skin; however, if they enter the body,
extensive damage may occur in tissues.
- high-energy radiation, which causes more damage than alpha particles and
includes beta particles, high-energy protons, and neutrons that travel into tissue.
- gamma rays, which are damaging because they travel a long way through body
tissue.
- the absorbed dose (rad) is multiplied by a factor that adjusts for biological
damage caused by a particular form of radiation.
People who work in radiation laboratories wear dosimeters attached to their clothing.
Dosimeters detect the amount of radiation exposure from the following:
- X-rays
- gamma rays
- beta particles
HALF-LIFE OF A RADIOISOTOPE
HALF-LIFE
The half-life of a radioisotope is the time for the radiation level to decrease (decay) to
one-half of the original value.
Steps:
HALF-LIFE EQUATION
– the cells in the body do not differentiate between non-radioactive atoms and radioactive
atoms.
– once incorporated into cells, the radioactive atoms are detected because they emit
radiation, giving an image of an organ.
- the scanner moves slowly over the organ where the radioisotope is absorbed.
- the radiologist determines the level and location of the radioactivity emitted by
the radioisotope.
- the gamma rays emitted from the radioisotope can be used to expose a
photographic plate, producing a scan of the organ.
- combine with electrons after emission to produce gamma rays, which are then
detected by computers, creating a 3-D image of the organ.
Another imaging method used to scan organs such as the brain, lungs, and heart is
called computed tomography (CT).
- A computer monitors the absorption of 30 000 X-ray beams directed at the brain
in successive layers.
- works because the energy absorbed is converted to color images of the body.
– Atoms form positively charged ions when they lose electrons and negatively charged
ions when they gain electrons.
– Ionic bonds are formed by the strong attractive forces between positive and negative
ions.
Chemical bonds are formed when atoms lose, gain, or share valence electrons to acquire an
octet of eight valence electrons (octet rule).
– Ionic bonds occur when valence electrons of a metal atom are transferred to the atom
of a nonmetal.
– Covalent bonds occur when nonmetal atoms share electrons to attain a noble gas
arrangement.
In ionic bonding, ions form when atoms gain or lose their valence electrons to form a
stable electron configuration. Metals, Group 1A (1), Group 2A (2), and Group 3A (13)
- lose electrons until they have the same number of valence electrons as the
nearest noble gas, usually eight valence electrons.
- readily gain one or more valence electrons to form ions with a negative charge.
- gain electrons until they have the same number of valence electrons as the
nearest noble gas, usually eight valence electrons.
We can use the group numbers in the periodic table to determine the charges for the
ions of the representative elements.
IONIC COMPOUNDS
Ionic compounds consist of positive and negative charges held together by the strong
electrical attractions between oppositely charged ions.
Ionic compounds
- have attractions called ionic bonds between positively and negatively charged
ions.
In a chemical formula,
- the symbols and subscripts are written in the lowest whole-number ratio of the
atoms or ions.
- the name of the nonmetal is the first syllable of the nonmetal name + ide ending
and is written second.
- a space is placed between the name of the metal and nonmetal ion.
Steps:
3. Name the anion by using the first syllable of its element name followed by ide.
4. Write the name for the cation first and the name for the anion second.
Transition metals except for Zn2+, Cd2+, and Ag+ form two or more positive ions
(cations).
A Roman numeral equal to the ion charge is placed in parentheses immediately after the
metal name.
Steps:
2. Name the cation by its element name, and use a Roman numeral in parentheses for
the charge. iron(II)
3. Name the anion by using the first syllable of its element name followed by ide.
Chloride
4. Write the name for the cation first and the anion second. iron(II) chloride
POLYATOMIC IONS
Polyatomic ions
- have a negative charge, except for NH4+ ammonium, which has a positive charge
When writing formulas for ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions, we use the
same rules of charge balance as those for simple ionic compounds.
The names of molecular compounds need prefixes because several different compounds can
be formed from the same two nonmetals.
– atoms of two or more nonmetals share electrons and form a covalent bond.
- second nonmetal is named using the first syllable of the name followed by ide.
When a subscript indicates two or more atoms of an element, a prefix is shown in front
of its name.
CO → carbon monoxide
- When the vowels o and o or a and o appear together, the first vowel is omitted.
Steps:
2. Name the second nonmetal by using the first syllable of the element name followed
by ide.
A compound is usually
– ionic if the first element in the formula or the name is a metal or the polyatomic ion
NH4+
A molecule is represented by a Lewis structure in which the valence electrons of all the
atoms are arranged to give octets.
– The shared electrons, or bonding pairs, are shown as two dots or a single line between
atoms.
– The nonbonding pairs, or lone pairs, are placed on the outside of the atoms.
The elements hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine exist as
diatomic molecules.
– Use the group number to determine the number of valence electrons for
each element.
3. Attach each bonded atom to the central atom with a pair of electrons.
4. Place the remaining electrons using single or multiple bonds to complete octets (two
for H).
A double bond
A triple bond
- The S atom has an octet in many compounds, but in SF 6 , there are 12 valence
electrons or 6 bonds to the sulfur atom.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
The electronegativity of an atom is its ability to attract the shared electrons in a bond. It
- increases from left to right going across a period on the periodic table.
POLARITY OF BONDS
The difference in electronegativity of bonding atoms can be used to predict the polarity
of the bond.
- an arrow that points from the positive to the negative end of the dipole.
IONIC BONDS
An ionic bond
VSEPR Theory
- states that electron groups are arranged as far apart as possible around the
central atom.
3. Use the atoms bonded to the central atom to determine the shape.
POLARITY OF MOLECULES
Nonpolar molecules
- such as H2, Cl2, and O2 are nonpolar because they contain nonpolar bonds.
- with polar bonds can be nonpolar if the polar bonds (dipoles) cancel in a
symmetrical arrangement2
- one end of the molecule is more negatively charged than the other.
- form strong dipole attractions called hydrogen bonds between hydrogen atoms
bonded to F, O, or N, and a lone pair on F, O, or N.
Hydrogen bonds are the strongest force between molecules and play a major role in the
shape of DNA.
DISPERSION FORCES
- caused by temporary dipoles that develop when molecules bump into each other.
- weak but make it possible for nonpolar molecules to form liquids and solids.
- are highest in ionic compounds due to the strong attractive forces between ions
in the compound.
– reactants are written on the left side of the arrow; products are written on the right side
of the arrow.
– the delta (Δ) sign indicates heat is used to start the reaction.
– physical states of compounds are denoted in parentheses following the compound: solid
(s), liquid (l), gas (g), and aqueous (aq) or dissolved in water.
– the number of atoms on the reactant side is equal to the number of atoms on the
product side for each element
1. Write an equation using the correct formulas of the reactants and products.
3. Use coefficients to balance each element. Starting with the most complex formula,
change coefficients to balance the equation.
TYPES OF REACTIONS
Synthesis A + B → AB
Decomposition AB → A + B
Single Replacement AB + C → AC + B
Double Replacement AB + CD → AC + BD
Combustion fuel + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Oxidation e– are transferred from one substance to another
Some reactions may fit into more than one reaction type.
Oxidation−Reduction Reactions
The particular definition of oxidation and reduction depends on the process that occurs
in the reaction.
Oxidation
Reduction
THE MOLE
AVOGADRO'S NUMBER
Small particles such as atoms, molecules, and ions are counted using the mole, a unit
called Avogadro’s number that contains 6.022 × 1023 items.
Mole of Atoms
- subscripts are used to write conversion factors for moles of each element in 1
mole of a compound.
MOLAR MASS
To calculate the molar mass of a compound, we multiply the molar mass of each
element by its subscript in the formula and add the results.
Steps:
2. Multiply each molar mass by the number of moles (subscript) in the formula.
1. Obtain the molar mass of each element. State the given and needed quantities.
MAP: MASS–MOLES–PARTICLES
A mole–mole factor is a ratio of the moles for any two substances in an equation.
Steps:
2. Write a plan to convert the given to the needed quantity (moles or grams).
- first, converting the mass of substance A to moles using the molar mass of A;
LIMITING REACTANT
The reactant that does not completely react and is left over at the end of the reaction is
called the excess reactant.
In many reactions, there is a limiting reactant that determines the amount of product
that can be formed.
Given a chemical reaction, from each reactant we can
- determine the limiting reactant, the one that runs out first and produces the
smaller amount of product.
4. Calculate the number of moles of product from each reactant, and select the smaller
number of moles as the amount of product from the limiting reactant.
HEAT OF REACTION
The heat of reaction is the amount of heat absorbed or released during a reaction that
takes place at constant pressure. The change in energy occurs when
- reactants interact.
The heat of reaction or enthalpy change, symbol ΔH, is the difference between the
enthalpy of the products and enthalpy of the reactants.
DH = H products - H reactants
EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS
In an exothermic reaction,
- heat is released.
- the energy of the products is less than the energy of the reactants.
- heat is a product.
ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS
In an endothermic reaction,
- heat is absorbed.
GASES
PROPERTIES OF GASES
Generally, molecules with fewer than five atoms from the first two periods in the periodic
table are gases at room temperature. In addition, the following are also gases:
– oxides of the nonmetals on the upper-right corner of the periodic table: CO, CO 2, NO,
NO2, SO2, and SO3
– noble gases
3. occupy a much larger volume than the volume of the molecules alone.
5. have a Kelvin temperature proportionate to the average kinetic energy of the molecules
Gas particles which move in straight lines within a container, exert pressure when they
collide with the walls of the container.
Gases are described in terms of four properties: pressure (P), volume (V), temperature (T),
and amount (n).
1. Pressure – the force exerted by a gas against the walls of the container
3. Temperature – the determining factor of the kinetic energy and rate of motion of
gas particles
VOLUME
TEMPERATURE
The temperature of a gas relates to the average kinetic energy of the molecules and is
measured in the Kelvin (K) temperature scale.
PRESSURE
Pressure is a measure of the gas particle collisions with sides of a container and is
measured in units of
- atmospheres, atm.
Measuring Pressure
A barometer
The barometer was invented by Evangelista Torricelli, at exactly 1 atm the barometer
tube measures exactly 760 mm high.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Atmospheric pressure
- is the pressure exerted by a column of air from the top of the atmosphere to the
surface of Earth.
- On a hot, sunny day, the mercury column rises, indicating a higher atmospheric
pressure.
- On a rainy day, the atmosphere exerts less pressure, which causes the mercury
column to fall.
GAS LAWS
PRESSURE AND VOLUME, (Boyle’s Law)
The inverse relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas is known as Boyle’s
law.
Changes occur in opposite directions. When volume increases, the pressure decreases,
provided the temperature and moles of the gas remains constant.
BOYLE’S LAW
PV
1 1 = P2V 2
If we increase the temperature of a gas sample, kinetic molecular theory states that the
motion (kinetic energy) of the gas particles will also increase.
If the amount and pressure of the gas is held constant, the volume of the container will
increase.
CHARLES’S LAW
In Charles’s law,
V1 V 2
=
T1 T 2
GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW
When the Kelvin temperature of a gas doubles at constant volume and amount of gas,
the pressure also doubles.
In Gay-Lussac’s law,
- the pressure exerted by a gas is directly related to the Kelvin temperature of the
gas.
- volume and amount of gas are constant.
P1 P2
=
T1 T 2
When liquid molecules with sufficient kinetic energy break away from the surface of a
liquid, they become a vapor.
- In a closed container, the vapor accumulates and creates pressure called vapor
pressure.
A liquid
- boils when its vapor pressure becomes equal to the external pressure.
At high altitudes,
PV PV
1 1
= 2 2
T1 T2
In Avogadro’s law,
- the volume of a gas is directly related to the number of moles (n) of gas.
V1 V 2
=
n1 n 2
STANDARD TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE
The volumes of gases can be compared at STP, Standard Temperature and Pressure,
when they have
The ideal gas law is the combination of the four properties used in the measurement of
a gas—pressure (P), volume (V), temperature (T), and amount of a gas (n)—to give a
single expression, which is written as
PV = nRT
Rearranging the ideal gas law equation shows that the four gas properties equal a
constant, R.
- To calculate the value of R, we substitute the STP conditions (273 K, 1 atm) for
molar volume into the expression: 1 mole of gas = 22.4 L at STP
- Real gases show some deviations in behavior; however, the ideal gas law closely
approximates the behavior of real gases at typical conditions.
- The value for the ideal gas constant, R, is 0.0821 L·atm per mole·K.
- the moles of a gas in a reaction if we are given the number of moles for one of
the gases in a reaction.
- pressure depends on the total number of gas particles, not on the types of
particles.
- the total pressure exerted by gases in a mixture is the sum of the partial
pressures of those gases
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + ...
- contains mostly N2 and O2, and contains small amounts of other gases.
What we call the atmospheric pressure is actually the sum of the partial pressures of the
gases in the air
SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS
– form when there is sufficient attraction between the solute and solvent molecules.
– have two components: the solvent, present in a larger amount, and the solute, present
in a smaller amount.
SOLUTES
- mix with solvents so the solute and solvent have the same physical state.
- are not visible, but they can give a color to the solution.
Water
FORMATION OF SOLUTIONS
Solutions form when the solute–solvent interactions are large enough to overcome the
solute–solute interactions and the solvent–solvent interactions.
Solutions will form when the solute and solvent have similar polarities: “like dissolves
like.”
STRONG ELECTROLYTES
Strong electrolytes
- form solutions that conduct an electric current strong enough to light a bulb.
WEAK ELECTROLYTES
A weak electrolyte
- dissociates only slightly in water.
NONELECTROLYTES
Nonelectrolytes
EQUIVALENTS OF ELECTROLYTES
- the charge of the positive ions is always balanced by the charge of the negative
ions.
1 Eq = 1000 mEq
SOLUBILITY
Solubility is
UNSATURATED SOLUTION
SATURATED SOLUTION
More solute can dissolve in an unsaturated solution but not in a saturated solution.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON SOLUBILITY
Solubility
- depends on temperature.
- the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly related to the pressure of that gas
above the liquid.
When the pressure of a gas above a solution decreases, the solubility of that gas in the
solution also decreases.
- Only ionic compounds that contain a soluble cation or anion are soluble in water.
- In an insoluble ionic compound, the ionic bonds are too strong for the polar
water molecules to break. We can use the solubility rules to predict whether an
ionic compound would be expected to dissolve in water.
SOLUTION CONCENTRATIONS
amount of solute
Concentration of a solution =
amount of solution
grams of solute
mass percent (m/m) =
100 grams of solution
MASS/VOLUME PERCENT
MOLARITY
- the volume
MOLALITY
Molality is a concentration unit based on the number of moles of solute per kilogram
of solvent.
moles of solute
m =
kg of solvent
In dilute aqueous solutions, molarity and molality are nearly equal
NORMALITY
DILUTION OF SOLUTIONS
In a dilution,
- water is added.
- concentration decreases.
Solute Concentrations
PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
When a solute is added to water, the physical properties change and the
These types of properties are called colligative properties; they depend only on the
concentration of solute particles in the solution.
Increasing the concentration of nonvolatile solute particles in the solution raises the
boiling point of the solution, and
- the solution boils at a higher temperature than the normal boiling point.
DT b = K b m
where :
DT b = boiling point elevation of solvent
m = molal concentration of solution
K b = molal boiling point elevation constant for the solvent
DT f = K f m
where :
DT f = freezing point depression of solvent
m = molal concentration of solution
K f = molal freezing point depression constant for the solvent
OSMOSIS
In osmosis,
- the level of the solution with the higher solute concentration rises.
Water flows into the solution with a higher solute concentration until the flow of
water becomes equal in both directions.
OSMOTIC PRESSURE
Osmotic pressure is
- equal to the pressure that would prevent the flow of additional water into the
more concentrated solution.
p = MRT
where :
p = osmotic pressure in atm
M = molar concentration of solution
L� atm
R = 0.0821
mol �K
T = absolute temperature
Reverse Osmosis
- the flow of water is reversed because water flows from an area of lower to
higher water concentration, leaving behind the molecules and ions in solution.
ISOTONIC SOLUTIONS
HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
A hypotonic solution
The increase in fluid causes the cells to swell and burst, a condition called
hemolysis.
HYPERTONIC SOLUTION
A hypertonic solution
(b) Hemolysis: In a hypotonic solution, water flows into a red blood cell, causing
it to swell and burst.
(c) Crenation: In a hypertonic solution, water leaves the red blood cell, causing it
to shrink.
EQUILIBRIUM
RATES OF REACTIONS
– Reaction rates vary greatly for everyday processes. A banana ripens in a few days, silver
tarnishes in a few months, while the aging process of humans takes many years.
– Reacting molecules must collide, have a minimum amount of energy, and have the
proper orientation to form products.
ACTIVATION ENERGY
Even when a collision has the proper orientation, there still must be sufficient energy to
break the bonds between the atoms of the reactants.
1. Collision
– The reactants must collide.
2. Orientation
– The reactants must align properly to break and form bonds.
3. Energy
– The collision must provide the energy of activation.
The activation energy is the minimum amount of energy required to break the bonds
between atoms of the reactants.
Rate of Reaction
Reactions with low activation energies go faster than reactions with high activation
energies.
- adding a catalyst.
Temperature
Reactant Concentration
When there are more reacting molecules, more collisions that form products can
occur, and the reaction goes faster.
Catalysts
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
In most chemical reactions, the reactants are not completely converted to products because
a reverse reaction takes place in which products collide to form the reactants.
REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
A reversible reaction
- occurs in both the forward and reverse direction at the same time.
- has two rates, a rate for the forward reaction and a rate for the reverse reaction.
As the reaction progresses, the rate of the forward reaction decreases and that of the
reverse reaction increases. At equilibrium, the rates of the forward and reverse reactions
are equal.
Equilibrium
At equilibrium,
- the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction.
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS
aA + bB � cC + dD
– multiplies the concentrations of the products together and divides by the concentrations
of the reactants.
– raises the concentration (moles/liter) of each species to a power that is equal to its
coefficient in the balanced chemical equation.
c d
C ��
� D�
� � �products �
�
K c = � ��
a b
=
�A ��B� reactants �
�
� �� � � �
Steps:
2. Write the concentrations of the products as the numerator and the reactants as the
denominator
The values of Kc can be large or small, depending on whether equilibrium is reached with
– more products than reactants.
However, the size of the equilibrium constant does not affect how fast equilibrium is
reached.
Reactions with a large Kc have large amounts of products produced from the forward
reaction at equilibrium.
A few reactions have equilibrium constants close to 1, which means they have about
equal concentrations of reactants and products at equilibrium.
LE CHÂTELIER’S PRINCIPLE
When the conditions of a reaction at equilibrium are changed, the forward and reverse
reactions will no longer be equal.
Le Châtelier’s principle states that when a stress is placed on a reaction at equilibrium, the
system responds by changing the rate of the forward or reverse reaction in the direction
that relieves that stress.
- The time to reach equilibrium is shorter; however, the same ratios of reactants
and products are present.
ARRHENIUS ACIDS
NAMING ACIDS
- Acids with a hydrogen ion (H+) and a nonmetal (or CN−) ion are named with the
prefix hydro and end with ic acid.
- Acids with a hydrogen ion (H+ ) and a polyatomic ion are named by changing the
end of the name of the polyatomic ion from ate to ic acid or ite to ous acid
ARRHENIUS BASES
– are also electrolytes, because they produce hydroxide ions (OH −) in water.
NAMING BASES
HA + B � A - + BH +
1 4 4 4 2 4 4 43
Acid and conjugate base pair 2
AMPHOTERIC SUBSTANCES
Substances that can act as both acids and bases are amphoteric or amphiprotic.
For water, the most common amphoteric substance, the acidic or basic behavior
depends on the other reactant.
- A weak acid dissociates only slightly in water to form a few ions in aqueous
solutions.
STRONG ACIDS
WEAK ACIDS
- Most of the weak acid remains as the undissociated (molecular) form of the acid.
- In an HCl solution, the strong acid HCl dissociates 100% to form H + and Cl−.
- A solution of the weak acid HC2H3O2 contains mostly molecules of HC2H3O2 and a
few ions of H+ and C2H3O2–
DIPROTIC ACIDS
- Some weak acids are diprotic acids that have two H +, which dissociate one at a
time.
- Some strong acids are diprotic acids that have two H+, which dissociate one at a
time.
STRONG BASES
WEAK BASES
- include ammonia.
Direction of Reaction
Strong acids have weak conjugate bases that do not readily accept H +.
- As the strength of the acid decreases, the strength of its conjugate base
increases.
In any acid–base reaction, there are two acids and two bases.
- However, one acid is stronger than the other acid, and one base is stronger than
the other base.
Because the dissociation of strong acids in water is essentially complete, the reaction is
not considered to be an equilibrium process.
- Weak acids partially dissociate in water as the ion products reach equilibrium
with the undissociated weak acid molecules.
H 3O + �
�
� �CHO 2 - �
�
� �
Ka =
HCHO 2
Weak acids have small Ka values, while strong acids have very large K a values.
The concentration of water is omitted from the base dissociation constant expression.
DISSOCIATION OF WATER
In water,
In the equation for the dissociation of water, there is both a forward and a reverse
reaction.
H 2O (l ) + H 2O (l ) � H 3O + (aq ) + OH - (aq )
Base Acid Conjugate Conjugate
acid base
- In pure water, the concentrations of H3O+ and OH− at 25 °C are each 1.0 × 10−7
M.
H 3O + �
�
� OH - �
�= �
� �= 1.0 �10 M
-7
Kw = �H 3O + �
� OH - �
��
� �
K w = ( 1.0 �10 -7 M ) ( 1.0 �10 -7 M ) = 1.0 �10 -14 M at 25 �
C
When
In pure water, the ionization of water molecules produces small but equal quantities of
H3O+ and OH− ions.
2. Write the Kw for water and solve for the unknown [H3O+] or [OH–]
3. Substitute in the known [H3O+] or [OH–] into the equation and calculate
THE PH SCALE
The pH of a solution
– is neutral at a pH of 7.
pH MEASUREMENT
The pH scale
pH = - log �
H 3O + �
� �
To calculate the pH, the negative powers of 10 in the molar concentrations are
converted to positive numbers. If [H3O+] is 1.0 × 10−2 M,
pH = - log �
1.0 �10 -2 �
� �= -(-2.00) = 2.00
Given the pH of a solution, we can reverse the calculation to obtain the [H 3O+]
- For whole number pH values, the negative pH value is the power of 10 in the
[H3O+] concentration.
- pH
H 3O + �
�
� �= 10
- For pH values that are not whole numbers, the calculation requires the use of
the 10x key, which is usually a 2nd function key.
REACTIONS OF ACIDS AND BASES
REACTIONS OF ACIDS
A salt is an ionic compound that does not have H+ as the cation or OH– as the anion.
ACID–BASE TITRATION
The titration of an acid. A known volume of an acid is placed in a flask with an indicator and
titrated with a measured volume of a base solution, such as NaOH, to the neutralization
endpoint.
TITRATION
ENDPOINT OF TITRATION
- the moles of base are equal to the moles of acid in the solution.
- the molarity of the acid is calculated using the neutralization equation for the
reaction.
BUFFERS
A buffer solution maintains the pH by neutralizing small amounts of added acid or base.
An acid must be present to react with any OH− added, and a base must be present to react
with any H3O+ added.
- in the body, they absorb H3O+ or OH− from foods and cellular processes to
maintain pH.
A change in the pH of the blood affects the uptake of oxygen and cellular processes.
COMPONENTS OF A BUFFER
A buffer solution
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
The field of organic chemistry is very important for a wide variety of reasons.
– The C—C bonds may be single bonds, double bonds, or triple bonds.
Organic compounds are commonly classified and named based on the type of functional group
present.
– An atom or group of atoms that influences the way the molecule functions, reacts or
behaves.
Amide