CAREER DECISION-MAKING:

WHAT MATTERS TO
INDIGENOUS AUSTRALIANS?

SUE HELME
Univer sity of Melbour ne

This article brings together and discusses three research projects that examined the
vocational education and career-decision making of Indigenous Australians. These studies
focused on the experiences of Indigenous people themselves, in order to provide an
Indigenous perspective on vocational and career development. Four main barriers that
limit the career opportunities of Indigenous people are identified, and the characteristics of
education and training settings that promote effective career development are described.
The article concludes by suggesting ways to respond to the career development needs of
Indigenous people that may lead to improved educational and employment outcomes.

I ntrod uct i o n first step in promoting stronger opportunities for

While a great amount of information is available on
Indigenous disadvantage in education, training and
employment (see Helme, 2007 for an overview), few
studies focus on the experiences of Indigenous people
themselves. This article attempts to provide such
a focus, by bringing together the findings of three
commissioned research projects undertaken by the
Centre for Post-Compulsory Education and Lifelong
Learning (CPELL) at the University of Melbourne.
The key purpose of this article is to draw together the
findings from this body of research, in order to make
them more accessible to those with an interest in the
career development needs of Indigenous people.
B arriers t o C a r e e r
D evelopme n t
Understanding the barriers that limit the career
opportunities of Indigenous people is an important
Indigenous career decision-makers. The research
points to four interrelated aspects: educational
disadvantage, lower career aspirations, less knowledge
about careers, and social and cultural barriers.
Educational Disadvantage
Educational disadvantage is a major factor
affecting the long-standing cycle of socio-economic
disadvantage experienced by Indigenous people.
Successful career pathways tend to be built upon school
completion, academic achievement and completion
of post-school qualifications. On each of these three
indicators, Indigenous Australians continue to be
significantly disadvantaged. As Long (2009) indicated,
in 2008 young Indigenous Australians were about
half as likely as their non-Indigenous counterparts
to remain at school until Year 12 (46% compared
to 74%). He also noted that this gap has declined

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by more than a quarter over the last decade (from Education). Conversely, non-Indigenous students were
39 percentage points to 28 percentage points), but far more likely to want to go to university. Gool and
it still remains significant. Although rates of early Patton (1999) also found limited career aspirations
leaving for Indigenous young people are declining, among young Indigenous women. Their study showed
attainment of higher education qualifications is still a preference towards the kinds of jobs already held by
significantly lower. Among 25- to 29-year-olds, 30% of family members and traditional gendered roles such as
non-Indigenous Australians hold a university degree, teaching, nursing and child care.
compared with 5% of their Indigenous counterparts
(Long & North, 2009). Non-completion of secondary Less Knowledge About Careers
education has serious consequences, which include Not only do Indigenous students tend to have lower
unemployment, underemployment and welfare aspirations, they also tend to know less than their non-
dependency. Consequently, Indigenous Australians are Indigenous counterparts about possible careers and
far more likely than the non-Indigenous population how to attain their career goals. Craven and colleagues
to be in part-time work or unemployed (Dusseldorp (2005) found that Indigenous students were less likely
Skills Forum, 2009). than non-Indigenous students to know much about
what sort of job they would like or what kinds of
Lower Career Aspirations further education and training were available to them
Helme, Hill, Balatti, Mackay, Walstab, Nicholas after they left school. Similarly, in a study of the VET
and Polesel (2003) undertook a national study sector, Alford and James (2007) found that the great
that investigated the role of vocational education majority of participants had no clear perception of post-
and training (VET) programs study career options or ‘vision’ of their
for secondary school students. An vocational future in five years’ time.
aspect of this research involved ‘ 
Only one of the 29 Indeed, only one of the 29 participants
analysis of the data obtained in participants made a specific made a specific connection between
a national survey of more than connection between his his preferred future and any possible
20 000 upper secondary students study programs required to achieve
conducted the previous year (Polesel
preferred future and any this goal.
& Helme, 2003). The sample of possible study programs Similarly, interviews with
20 000 included 451 respondents who required to achieve this Indigenous secondary school students
identified themselves as Indigenous,
so it was possible to compare the
career plans of Indigenous and non-
goal.
’
in Victoria (Sweet, Volkoff, Watts,
Helme, Rice, Pannell & Keating,
2009) revealed that, while they were
Indigenous young people. Helme and colleagues well informed about pathways into technical and
(2003) found that Indigenous students generally trades careers, they possessed little knowledge of the
expressed lower career aspirations than their non- pathways to professional occupations. For example,
Indigenous counterparts, more frequently nominating students interested in pursuing careers such as interior
careers based on vocational or trade qualifications. design, landscape architecture and marine biology
Furthermore, Indigenous young people were found had little knowledge of the education and training
to be significantly more likely than their non- pathways leading to them.
Indigenous counterparts to be enrolled in VET in
school programs, which highlights concerns about Social and Cultural Barriers
inappropriate channelling of Indigenous students into Social disadvantage among Indigenous people is
non-academic pathways. Similarly, a study involving well documented. The fourth Overcoming Indigenous
517 Indigenous and 1151 non-Indigenous students Disadvantage report (Steering Committee for the
conducted by Craven, Tucker, Munns, Hinkley, Marsh Review of Government Service Provision, 2009)
and Simpson (2005) found that Indigenous secondary shows that Indigenous people are still significantly
students were significantly more likely than non- disadvantaged, compared with the rest of the
Indigenous students to expect to leave school early population, on key social indicators such as: life
or to aspire to go to TAFE (Technical And Further expectancy (which is 17 years lower than for non-

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Indigenous Australians); rates of disability and
chronic disease; household and individual income;
home ownership; victim rates for crime, suicide and
self-harm; deaths from homicide; and imprisonment
and juvenile detention rates.
Family illness and attendance at funerals have been
found to severely interrupt the attendance patterns of
many Indigenous TAFE students (Helme, Polesel &
Nicholas, 2005). Students missed substantial amounts
of schooling to care for sick parents, grandparents and
younger siblings, or to attend funerals.
Racism, an enduring social obstacle, has been
shown in numerous studies to have a major impact
on educational and employment outcomes for
Indigenous people (Helme, 2005; 2007). Personal
racism includes racist taunts and physical violence,
while institutional racism is manifest in the failure to
acknowledge the culture of Indigenous people within
the everyday practices of educational institutions, as
well as in low expectations of Indigenous students
themselves. Institutional racism is also reflected in
how schools allocate resources, and in the construction
of knowledge that informs curriculum content.
Timetabling, teaching methods and assessment
practices may confer benefits to non-Indigenous
students, to the detriment of their Indigenous
counterparts.
Discussions with Indigenous TAFE students
(Helme, Polesel & Nicholas, 2005) have revealed that
they perceive racism in the broader community as
the biggest barrier to employment for their people.
Despite optimism about improving employment
opportunities, particularly in relation to targeted
positions in government departments, respondents
were acutely aware of the difficulties in finding
employment in mainstream organisations, and the
challenge of eliminating racial discrimination in the
wider community. Craven and colleagues (2005)
found similar attitudes among Indigenous secondary
students, who identified more social barriers (including
racism) affecting attainment of their career goals than
did non-Indigenous students.
B uil ding C a r e e r C a p i ta l
A number of factors that facilitate the career decision-
making of Indigenous people can be distilled from our
research. These include the role of VET as a second-
chance opportunity, the importance to Indigenous
people of cultural identity and community service and
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Articles
the emergence of sport as a means of engaging young
Indigenous people in career pathways.
The Role of VET
Despite difficulties finding employment, an
encouraging picture of participation is evident in
the VET sector. Since the 1980s there has been a
significant upsurge in Indigenous enrolments in
VET that far outstrips increases in secondary and
higher education enrolments. In the mid-1980s, there
were only about 3300 Indigenous students in VET
(Robinson & Hughes, 1999) but, by 2008, participation
had grown 22-fold to 73 700 students (National Centre
for Vocational Education Research, 2009). These
participation rates have contributed to narrowing the
gap in certificate completions between Indigenous
and non-Indigenous students. Among 20- to 24-year-
olds, completion of Certificate III or IV by Indigenous
people increased from 8.5% in 2001 to 13.2% in 2006,
while comparable figures for non-Indigenous students
were 13.3% and 16% (Long & North, 2009).
VET has several characteristics that make it more
accessible to Indigenous learners. Students are able
to enrol in lower-level programs without having
completed secondary education, and this enables them
to negotiate a pathway to higher-level programs and
qualifications, and, ultimately, into employment. In
some TAFE institutes, there are purpose-built facilities
that provide a culturally affirming environment for
Indigenous students, employing Indigenous liaison
staff who support students and advocate on their
behalf. Indigenous support units also offer Indigenous-
specific programs that range from basic education
programs through to diploma-level courses in areas
such as health, welfare and art and design.
In their study of the VET experiences of
Indigenous students, Helme, Polesel and Nicholas
(2005) investigated the students’ career decision-
making processes. They located and interviewed 128
participants (75 current and 53 former students). The
majority of participants reported that they had been
unhappy at school, and most had left school before
completing Year 10. Participants from a broad range
of courses were represented in the sample, but 70%
were currently studying, or had studied, in five fields:
welfare; health and community services; Indigenous
art and design; business management; and land
care. This enrolment pattern reflects the enrolment
preferences of Indigenous students more generally:
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they are typically over-represented in these fields
(National Centre for Vocational Education Research,
2009).
The study identified multiple reasons that students
engaged with VET:
• building basic literacy and numeracy skills
• establishing a pathway to further TAFE study
• providing a stepping stone to employment
• providing a means of making a career change
• supplementing an already established career path
• to gain promotion
• to move into the world of higher education.
Cultural Identity and Community Service
Importantly, many students (and former students)
expressed the need to connect with Indigenous culture
and history, to strengthen their Indigenous identity
and to pass cultural knowledge on to others. This was
particularly evident for those enrolled in courses with
an Indigenous cultural component such as art and
design, Indigenous welfare and caring for Indigenous
culture.
Strong enrolments in community services
and health certificates reflected the availability
of Indigenous-specific training and employment
opportunities. Interviews revealed a strong
commitment to careers that contribute to the health
and welfare of their communities:
The course has given me a deeper insight into some
of the more critical issues with our people. I wasn’t
aware of some of the statistics. That’s been a real eye-
opener. I’ve learnt through this course that we don’t
have a lot of elderly role models, men, that are there
… Again that’s another strong influence for me, that
possibly one day I could be one of those people that I
needed. [Male, 48]
Just the amount of Koorie people in the jails …
While I was in I made up my mind that once I got
out I was going to try and do something to help keep
Koories out of jail. So that’s basically why I started
the course. I can speak from experience and if I can
keep a couple of young Koorie kids out of jail, it’d be
worth it. [Male, 40]
Service to community was also a strong source of
motivation for the Indigenous students in the study
by Craven and colleagues (2005). Indeed, Indigenous
students felt significantly more confident than
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non-Indigenous students in being able to make a
contribution to society and their community, and
‘dream of a future where they can get a job that makes
a difference to community’ (Craven et al., 2005, p. 37).
Furthermore, participants whose lives have been
characterised by significant personal and financial
hardship, interviewed by Helme, Polesel and Nicholas
(2005), reported that their TAFE experience also
involved spiritual and emotional healing:
A lot of us had mental issues too; I was one. And
you’ve got to learn to forgive, move on and make
something of your life. [Female, 44]
I have family issues. Everyone has family issues
but I’m not going to let them interfere with me. It’s
Fiona’s time now. It’s full on Fiona’s time and it’s
only if I want to stop making it Fiona’s time that
I’m going to fail. I think … family issues, financial,
boyfriend issues, they’re secondary to what path I’m
on at the moment. [Female, 26]
The findings discussed above suggest that deeper
issues of cultural identity are at work in the career
decision-making of Indigenous Australians but such
factors have received little attention in the career
development literature. One important exception is the
work of Lips-Wiersma (2002), who investigated deeper
questions of meaning-making in career choice and
transition. Her study comprised reflective interviews
with individuals from a wide range of spiritual
affiliations. Included in the sample were a small
number of Indigenous Maori people. In spite of a wide
diversity of religious and spiritual beliefs, the research
participants identified four purposes to be significant
and meaningful: developing and becoming self,
unity with others, expressing self and serving others.
Comments from the Maori participants echoed those
of Indigenous Australians, in that they emphasised the
importance of expressing cultural identity and serving
their community through their work.
The Role of Sport
For many younger Indigenous people, sport has
emerged as a lever for career development. A clue to
its potential was suggested by Helme and colleagues
(2003), whose survey found that professional sport was
the most frequently mentioned career goal of young
Indigenous males. Almost one in four upper secondary
students (24%) aspired to become a professional

sportsman, compared to 11% of their non-Indigenous
counterparts. The importance of sport in Indigenous
cultural life is highlighted by the strong representation
of Indigenous players in Australia’s main professional
football code, Australian Rules football: Indigenous
players comprise 11% of players, while comprising
only 2.5% of the total Australian population. This
phenomenon highlights the enormous potential of
sport in creating positive expectations and career
opportunities. The Australian Football League
(AFL) has taken a leadership role in nurturing young
Indigenous players and cultivating a sustainable future
for them, as well as building respect for their talents
and skills among Australians in mainstream society
(Australian Football League, 2009).
‘ 
There are various programs that
make use of sport as a means of
Professional sport was
engaging young Indigenous people in most frequently mentioned them to move away from home and
building viable career pathways. One career goal of young
example is the Academy of Sport,
Health and Education (ASHE).
ASHE is based in Shepparton,
Indigenous males.
Victoria, and is a collaborative partnership between
the University of Melbourne and the Rumbalara
Football Netball Club. It provides an innovative
range of programs to support, encourage and prepare
Indigenous students for employment or to undertake
further education. ASHE programs focus on
Indigenous students’ personal needs, provide health
education and vocational training and offer career
development support within a trusted, culturally
appropriate environment (Academy of Sport, Health
and Education, 2009).
R espon din g t o t h e N e ed s o f
I ndi genou s C a r e e r D ec is i o n -
M akers
The research discussed provides insights into the
factors that influence the career decision making of
Indigenous people. How should career development
services respond?
Given the importance of cultural identity in
shaping the career decisions of Indigenous people, this
needs to be brought in to the career decision-making
process. As Sarra (1997) noted, career counsellors must
have a good understanding of who their clients are—
as individuals and as Indigenous Australians—and of
the issues they face as Indigenous people.
Discussions with Indigenous students (Sweet et al.,
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2009) have highlighted the need for interventions to
strengthen careers information and support. Students
identified a range of information and support that
they needed. Younger students expressed a need
for more feedback from teachers on areas in which
their achievement needs to improve; help in getting
scholarships, part-time work and choosing school
subjects; and more information about university and
jobs. Senior students wanted more visiting speakers to
provide information about their work and pathways
into it, more information about the subjects needed to
give them a pathway to the course they wanted to do
and more individual time with the careers coordinator.
Sarra (1997) also highlighted the importance of
encouraging clients (particularly
those in rural and remote regions)
the to consider options that may require
family, so that they break new ground
’
and create role models for others.
He also emphasised the importance
of encouraging clients to make
use of Indigenous-specific programs and support
mechanisms without guilt or embarrassment.
Highly coordinated individual case management
is a central pillar of effective career development
support for Indigenous people (Alford & James, 2007;
Helme, 2007; Lamb & Rice, 2009). These studies
recommended strong advocacy by career personnel
and liaison with external agencies, so that Indigenous
students not only have access to information about
financial assistance, scholarships and other forms
of support, but are also supported in accessing such
resources.
On the basis of interviews with career development
professionals, Sweet and colleagues (2009) found that
intensive case management was essential for some
Indigenous students:
They need someone on their case the whole time,
[someone] who works with them at home … You
need to make career planning special, for example by
providing Aboriginal work placements. You need to
identify their strengths and find decent jobs they can
try for. [Careers coordinator]
This study also found that Indigenous students tend
to miss out on opportunities because they do not know
what support is available. An Indigenous community
representative interviewed for this study cited an
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example of an Indigenous student who did not enrol in cadetships and structured volunteering opportunities.
a VET in schools program because of the fee, despite
the fact that financial assistance was readily available. C o nc l u s i o n s
Had the student known this and sought assistance, he This article has drawn on research by the author as
would have gained the necessary support. well as a number of related studies that focus on the
The community representative also emphasised vocational and career experiences of Indigenous people
the need for ‘hands on’ assistance to Koorie families, in order to shed light on the factors that influence
to ensure their engagement in the career development their career decision-making. It has highlighted
process, so that families with no history of working or the barriers that limit the career opportunities of
who do not understand the education system can build Indigenous Australians, described the characteristics
the knowledge and confidence to discuss career plans of education and training settings that promote
with their children: positive career development, explored the factors that
Indigenous people take into account when making
Previous Koorie Career Development Days had very
career decisions, and made suggestions for responding
poor attendance … More support is needed actually
to their career development needs.
getting families to attend, such as contacting each
While progress has been made in terms of
family, encouraging them and providing a bus. What
completion of school education and post-school
they need to do is employ someone for a short time to
qualifications (particularly VET), there are still
make the phone calls, book the bus, pick people up
significant gaps in school achievement and outcomes.
and follow up afterwards.
Closing gaps is a shared responsibility
Because many Indigenous students but good practice in educational
live in families and communities that
have no personal experience of tertiary
‘ 
Because
students
many
live in
Indigenous
families
and training settings can make a
significant contribution to building
education or employment outside and communities that have the career capital of Indigenous
Indigenous organisations, workplace people.
experience is invaluable. Helme
no personal experience Firstly, a supportive institutional
and colleagues (2003) found that of tertiary education culture is essential. Leaders and
Indigenous VET in Schools students or employment outside staff must be committed to raising
strongly endorsed work placements as
Indigenous organisations, the achievement bar for Indigenous
means of developing self-confidence, students. This requires genuine
gaining generic workplace skills and workplace experience is cultural understanding and respect,
locating useful contacts for future
employment. Students particularly
invaluable.
’
positive engagement with Indigenous
communities and targeted strategies
valued placements in Indigenous for increasing student engagement,
organisations, or settings where Indigenous mentoring retention, completion and transition. Our research
was available. School staff also noted that careful has highlighted the need for a hands-on approach
selection of work placements was needed to ensure that that ensures that families are involved in the career
Indigenous students’ support needs were adequately development of their children.
met. Secondly, case management of Indigenous students
In a recent review of education and training at risk of disengaging is essential, with interventions
outcomes of Indigenous young people, Dusseldorp tailored to suit individual circumstances and needs.
Skills Forum (2009) concluded that work experience This may involve timely information or providing
programs, work-based training and work placements access to financial assistance for education and training
connected to study and local work opportunities for costs, or it may include more intensive individual
Indigenous young people are central to building a support, such as individual learning plans, attendance
strong economic and social future for Indigenous contracts, pathway plans and mentoring.
communities. It recommended that schools are funded Thirdly, workplace learning must be made
to expand workplace experience programs to include, available, to ensure that Indigenous young people are
for example, part-time and casual work, holiday exposed to a wide range of employment options. Some

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students may need more experience than that which is
normally available through work experience or VET
work placements in order to compensate for a lack of
familiarity with the workplace and to build students’
confidence and skills.
Finally, all Indigenous learners need to be tracked
as they progress through the education and training
system. This would strengthen opportunities for early
identification and intervention. Potential early leavers
could be identified and supported to re-engage, and
those who have disengaged could be located and
encouraged to re-engage.
Effective career development support for
Indigenous people requires adequate resources and a
concentration of resources where they are most needed.
Appropriate and targeted support enables Indigenous
decision-makers to make informed decisions and
successful transitions. The resulting improvements in
education, training and employment outcomes would
reduce dependence on welfare assistance, strengthen
Indigenous communities and ultimately contribute to
the empowerment of all Indigenous people.
A c knowle d ge m e n t s
The author acknowledges the organisations that
funded the research cited in this article, including
the Victorian Department of Education and Early
Childhood Development, the Victorian Department
of Innovation, Industry and Regional Development
and the Victorian Qualifications and Registration
Authority. The author would like to thank Tony
Watts and Richard Sweet for feedback on an earlier
draft of this paper. Above all, thanks are due to those
who generously agreed to be interviewed for these
studies.
R eferen ces
Academy of Sport, Health and Education. (2009). Retrieved 7
January 2009 from http://www.ashe.com.au
Alford, K., & James, R. (2007). Pathways and barriers: Indigenous
schooling and vocational education and training participation
in the Goulburn Valley Region. Adelaide: National Centre for
Vocational Education Research.
Australian Football League. (2009). Current Indigenous
players in the AFL. Retrieved 14 September 2009 from
http://www.afl.com.au/development/qantasaflkickstart/
indigenousplayersintheafl/currentplayers/tabid/14139/default.
aspx
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A U T H OR

Sue Helme is a Research Fellow at the University of Melbourne Centre for Post-compulsory Education and
Lifelong Learning. Her research covers primary, secondary, vocational training and adult and community
education, with a focus on social patterns of student achievement, strategies for lifting student achievement,
and school improvement strategies. Her current commitments include a longitudinal study of student
achievement in the northern suburbs of Melbourne.
Email: sueh@unimelb.edu.au

T H E ORY AND P RA C TI C E

This section is designed as a brief professional review of the article. It provides relevant
study questions and answers for readers to test their knowledge of the article.

What are the main barriers to the career
development of Indigenous Australians?
Answer: Educational disadvantage; low career
aspirations; poor knowledge of occupations; and
social and cultural barriers including racism.
What role does the VET sector have in building
career pathways of Indigenous people?
Answer: VET offers a second chance at education and
training for those who have not completed secondary
education. VET offers programs at a range of levels,
from basic certificate programs to diplomas, which
creates a pathway from lower level certificates
to high-end diplomas and degrees. It also offers
programs that meet the educational and cultural
needs of Indigenous people and many programs are
designed specifically for them.
Many TAFE institutes provide Indigenous-specific
facilities, which create a culturally affirming and
supportive environment for Indigenous students.
What are the recommendations for strengthening
career development support for Indigenous people?
Answer: A culturally affirming institutional environment
with leaders and staff employing strategies designed
to close the gaps in educational and employment
outcomes; targeted case management, including
timely information, practical support and mentoring;
greater opportunities for work experience, including
short-term work placements, part-time and casual
work, holiday cadetships and structured volunteering
opportunities; and tracking of Indigenous students
throughout the education and training system, with a
focus on early intervention.

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